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EDITED    BY 

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Director  of  the  Psychological  Laboratory. 


Volume  IX. 
1901 


CONTENTS. 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech,  by  J.  E.  WALLACE  WALLIN,        i 
Note, 143 


YALE  UNIVERSITY,  NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 


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STUDIES 


FROM    THE 


Yale  Psychological  Laboratory 


EDITED   BY 

EDWARD    W.    SCRIPTURE,   PH.D. 

Director  of  the  Psychological  Laboratory. 


19O1 
VOL.    IX. 


YALE   UNIVERSITY 
NEW    HAVEN,    CONN. 


•• 


COPYRIGHT,  1902, 

BY 
EDWARD   W.    SCRIPTURE. 


PRESS  OF 

THE   NEW   ERA  PRINTING  COMPANY, 
LANCASTER,    PA. 


CONTENTS 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech,  by  J.   E.  WALLACE  WALLIN,        i 
Note, 143 


134505 


OF  THE 
[  UNIVERSITY  } 

OF 


RESEARCHES    ON   THE    RHYTHM    OF    SPEECH 

BY 

J.  E.  WALLAC^:  WALLIN. 
I.     HISTORICAL. 

BRUCKE  l  employed  two  methods  in  investigating  the  time  relations  of 
syllables  and  feet  in  verse. 

In  the  first  method  the  subject  of  the  experiment  beat  time  with  the 
finger  upon  a  key,  in  unison  with  the  rhythm  of  the  scanning  of  the 
particular  verse  that  was  read  by  him.  The  key  was  connected  with  a 
marker,  which  was  so  arranged  that  the  deflections  were  traced  upon  a 
recording  drum.  The  distances  between  the  checks  in  the  record  line 
were  regarded  as  representative  of  the  duration  of  time  between  the  suc- 
cessive points  of  emphasis. 

In  the  second  method  a  recording  lever  was  attached  to  the  lower  lip 
or  to  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw,  or,  though  rarely,  to  the  corresponding 
parts  of  the  upper  jaw.  A  series  of  monosyllables,  consisting  of  such 
words  as  ba,  bam,  pap,  etc.,  was  given  to  the  subject  to  scan  with  the 
utmost  regularity  in  accordance  with  predetermined  types  of  meter. 

The  general  conclusions  indicated  that  the  intervals  between  the  ac- 
cented syllables  of  poetry  are  exactly  equal  irrespective  of  the  quality  of 
the  material  which  constitutes  the  intervals.  Whenever  the  number  of 
unemphatic  syllables  which  occur  between  two  accented  syllables  exceeds 
the  average,  they  are  uttered  with  a  rapidity  sufficient  to  make  the  inter- 
vals equal  as  to  time ;  and  whenever,  on  the  other  hand,  the  number  is 
deficient,  the  loss  is  made  up  either  by  prolonging  the  syllables  or  by  in- 
troducing pauses. 

BRUCKE' s  investigation  was  concerned  with  a  purely  mechanical  or  ar- 
tificial method  of  scanning,  different  from  the  natural,  free,  or  artistic  read- 
ing. It  is  hardly  justifiable  to  apply  his  conclusions  to  ordinary  spoken 
verse  in  support  of  the  principle  of  equality  of  feet.2  The  free  rhyth- 
mical flow  is  the  expression  of  impulses,  unconsciously  operative,  that  are 
in  the  mind  of  the  poet  in  writing  verse.3  Mechanical  scansion  is  the 


1  BRUCKE,  Physiologische  Grundlagen  der  neuhochdeutschen  Verskunst,  Wien  1871. 

2  PAUL,  Grundziige  d.  germanischen  Philologie,  II  (i)  909,  Strasburg  1893. 
3POE,  The  Rationale  of  Verse,  Works  VI  84,  92,  Chicago  1895. 

I 


2  /.   E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

expression  of  impulses  consciously  striving  to  produce  perfect  uniformity, 
for  the  sake  of  a  certain  pleasure  which  is  derived  from  the  satisfaction 
of  expectant  attention.  In  so  far  as  it  is  perfectly  mechanical,  it  disre- 
gards the  logic  and  sense  of  the  word,  for  the  fuller  gratification  of  these 
impulses  which  are  relatively  incapable  of  being  intellectualized  and  which 
subserve  but  a  limited  function. 

BRUCKE'S  conclusions  are  accurate  only  within  wide  limits  owing  to 
the  inaccuracy  of  the  apparatus  of  that  date.  The  measurements  were 
recorded  on  a  crude  form  of  the  kymograph,  the  rate  of  rotation  of  which 
could  not  be  increased  sufficiently  to  register1  the  minute  differences 
which  inevitably  existed  between  the  individual  measurements. 

In  reference  to  BRUCKE'S  second  method,  we  have  to  consider  that 
the  concatenation  of  syllables  in  the  particular  series  that  was  scanned, 
was  arbitrary  and  artificial.  The  syllables  were  uniformly  monosyllabic, 
and  of  such  a  character  as  to  require  relatively  equal  strain  on  the  organs 
of  speech  in  uttering  them.  A  combination  of  difficult  and  easy  syllables, 
physiologically  considered,  would  probably  have  yielded  different  results. 

The  experiments  of  HURST  and  McKAY,2  with  more  accurate  appar- 
atus, were  measurements  of  the  intervals  between  the  beats  of  the  finger 
made  in  unison  with  scanned  verse.  The  method  was,  in  the  main,  like 
that  of  BRUCKE. 

The  following  conclusions  were  reached  :  ( i )  the  feet  of  a  given  verse 
are  equal  in  length ;  (2)  dactyls  and  trochees  are  shorter,  respectively, 
than  anapaests  and  iambics  ;  (3)  a  radical  difference  exists  between  the 
anapaest  and  the  dactyl,  the  length  of  the  syllables  in  the  former  being  of 
an  "ascending,"  in  the  latter  of  a  "descending,"  order;  (4)  there  is 
a  lack  of  a  fixed  proportion  between  syllables — the  emphatic,  however, 
being  longer  than  the  unemphatic. 

The  postulates  which  underlie  all  similar  attempts  at  measuring  the 
duration  and  equality  of  poetical  feet,  are  essentially  two  :  ( i)  the  rhythm 
of  the  scanned  verse  agrees  with  the  rhythm  of  the  taps  of  the  finger, 
and  (2)  neither  exercises  an  influence  upon  the  other  and  the  rhythm  of 
the  finger  does  not  tend  to  regulate  the  rhythm  of  the  scansion.  Neither 
of  these  assumptions  is  legitimate.  In  the  first  place,  the  two  types  of 
motor  innervation  do  not  exactly  correspond.  This  has  been  proved 
by  the  experiments  of  MIYAKE,  at  the  Yale  laboratory,  in  which  the 
subject  beat  upon  an  electrical  key  with  the  finger  as  the  sounds  ma,  pa, 


1  MEUMANN,   Untersuchungen  zur  Psychologic  und  Aesthetik  des  Rhythmus,  Philos. 
Stud.,  1894  X  418. 

2  HURST  AND  McKAY,  Experiments  on  time  relations  of  poetical  meters,  Univ.  Toronto 
Stud.  (Psychol.  Series),  1900  157. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  3 

etc.,  were  spoken  into  a  voice  key.  The  beats  of  the  finger  preceded 
the  sounds.  A  similar  result  has  beeen  obtained  in  the  present  series  of 
experiments.  The  subject  was  required  to  beat  time  on  the  table  upon 
which  the  phonograph  rested  in  time  with  the  rhythm  of  the  accents  of 
several  verses  of  faultless  meter,  which  were  mechanically  scanned.  The 
finger  beats  were  transmitted  to  the  phonograph  cylinder  through  the 
frame  of  the  phonograph.  The  results  showed  discrepancies  between  the 
two  beats,  the  beat  of  the  finger  generally  being  anterior  to  the  metrical 
accents.  In  the  second  place,  the  experiments,  to  which  reference  was 
last  made,  indicate  that  the  movements  of  the  finger  serve  as  regulators 
of  the  movements  of  the  larynx.  The  subject  was  directed  to  scan  as 
regularly  as  possible  both  with  and  without  the  beats  of  the  finger.  The 
result,  as  may  be  seen  by  turning  to  the  E.  H.  T.  records  (Tables  LXIL 
and  LXXV.  below),  was  that  the  regularity  in  the  former  instance  was 
more  than  trebled.  This  explains  the  high  degree  of  regularity  obtained 
in  the  measurements  of  the  two  preceding  series  of  researches. 

KRAL  and  MARES*  made  use  of  a  more  direct  method  of  measuring 
vocal  sounds.  The  apparatus  employed  was  a  telephone  receiver,  in 
electrical  contact  with  the  nerve  of  a  muscle  of  a  frog's  leg,  the  con- 
tractions of  which  were  registered  upon  the  smoked  paper  of  a  kymograph 
by  means  of  a  recording  arm.  The  sounds  spoken  into  the  receiver  pro- 
duced electrical  vibrations  that  stimulated  the  nerve  and  caused  the  muscle 
to  contract. 

The  experiments  included  two  kinds  of  measurements:  (i)  the 
length  of  syllables,  long  and  short,  uttered  separately  ;  and  (2)  the 
measures  of  scanned  verse.  The  language  spoken  was  Bohemian. 

Four  general  results  were  obtained  in  this  investigation:  (i)  long 
vowels  and  diphthongs,  though  generally  longer  than  short  vowels,  were 
often  of  the  same  length;  '(2)  neither  of  these  had  absolute  time- 
values,  even  for  the  same  person  ;  (3)  consonants  required  a  very  short 
time  for  their  utterance,  the  addition  of  consonants  to  syllables  not  be- 
ing attended  by  a  proportionate  increase  in  the  duration  of  the  sylla- 
bles, and  some  additions  of  consonants  tending  to  shorten  rather  than 
lengthen  the  syllables ;  (4)  even  in  attempting  to  scan  verse  so  as  to 
exactly  coordinate  the  time  of  the  measures,  an  equality  of  time-val- 
ues was  not  obtainable,  whether  the  scansion  was  according  to  the  time 
theory  or  the  emphasis  theory  of  meter. 

While  syllables  should  be  measured,  not  as  independent  entities  but  as 
interrelated  elements  of  a  complex  group  of  syllables — the  conditions 

1  KRAL  A  MARES,  Trvdni  hldsek  a  slabik  die  objectivnt  miry,  Listy  Filologicke,  1893 
XX  257. 


4  /.   E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

under  which  they  occur  in  speech — these  conclusions  are  important  as 
affecting  the  comparison  of  like  syllables  under  like  conditions.  The 
conclusion  with  reference  to  the  time-value  of  poetical  measures,  it  is 
interesting  to  notice,  is  at  variance  with  the  conclusions  of  the  two  former 
experimenters. 

MEYER/  in  a  series  of  experiments  the  publication  of  which  appears 
never  to  have  been  completed,  has  measured  the  syllables  and  feet  of 
spoken  verse.  An  electric  tuning  fork  vibrating  100  times  in  a  second 
recorded  the  time  line  on  a  smoked  drum.  A  MAREY  tambour  registered 
the  breath  pressure  from  the  mouth.  Two  trumpet-shaped  speaking 
tubes  of  paper  were  attached  to  the  tambour  by  means  of  a  short  glass  or 
metal  tube.  One  of  the  speaking  tubes  was  made  to  conveniently  fit  the 
mouth  cavity ;  the  other,  the  nose.  The  tubes  could  be  used  singly  or 
in  combination.  The  result  of  speaking  into  the  tube  was  to  transmit  to 
the  rubber  diaphragm  of  the  tambour  a  series  of  waves  corresponding  to 
the  sounds  and  silences  of  the  utterances.  The  fluctuation  of  the  dia- 
phragm were  registered  by  an  amplifying  straw  lever.  Thus  the  duration 
of  the  successive  explosions  of  the  stream  of  outflowing  air  could  be 
measured.  The  successive  puffs  of  air  were  hypothetically  assumed  to 
extend  over  the  same  times  as  the  successive  sounds. 

A  further  development  of  the  apparatus  consisted  in  connecting  a  tap- 
ping instrument  to  a  recording  lever  whose  point  was  adjusted  immedi- 
ately under  the  point  of  the  tambour. 

The  method  of  taking  the  records  consisted  in  repeating  monosyl- 
lables singly  or  as  a  series  of  words,  at  the  same  time  beating  with  the 
finger  upon  the  tapping  instrument  in  time  with  the  articulation  of  the 
syllable  at  the  moment  of  greatest  emphasis  ( ' '  Arsengipfel  "  ) .  The  sub- 
ject was  thoroughly  trained  in  coordinating  the  time  of  tapping  with  the 
time  of  uttering  the  words.  The  attempt  was  made  to  make  that  point 
of  the  syllable  which  represented  the  climax  of  the  energy  exerted  by 
the  vocal  organs  exactly  correspond  with  the  tapping  time.  This  was 
assumed  to  be  possible,  for  since  both  processes  start  from  the  same 
center  the  maximum  points  of  force  of  the  two  innervations  should  occur 
synchronously.  Thus  the  tapping  mark  upon  the  drum,  regardless  of 
where  it  occurred  in  the  course  of  the  sound,  represented  the  point  at 
which  the  energy  of  the  syllable  was  the  highest. 

The  object  of  the  investigation  was  twofold:  (i)  to  determine  the 
point  of  highest  energy  of  single  syllables  beginning  with  different  con- 
sonants, such  as  pha,  fha,  ha,  za,fma,  etc.  ;  (2)  to  investigate  the  meter 
of  German  verse. 

1  MEYER,  Beitrage  zur  deutschen  Melrik,  Neuere  Sprachen,  1898  VI  1-37;   122-140. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  5 

The  author  makes  the  following  general  deductions  :  (i)  the  point  of 
energy  occurs  in  the  initial  consonant  or  consonants  somewhere  shortly 
before  the  beginning  of  the  vowel,  varying  somewhat  according  to  the 
difficulty  of  articulating  the  consonants1  ;  (2)  the  moment  of  the  least, 
and  not  the  moment  of  the  highest,  energy  of  speech  determines  the 
boundaries  of  the  foot2;  (3)  whenever  the  beginning  of  the  arsis  (part 
of  syllable  preceding  point  of  highest  energy)  coincides  with  the  begin- 
ning of  a  syllable,  and  the  end  of  the  thesis  (part  following  the  point  of 
highest  energy)  coincides  with  the  end  of  the  syllable,  the  boundaries  of 
the  foot  coincide  with  the  boundaries  of  the  syllables2 ;  and  (4)  when- 
ever unemphatic  syllables  uniformly  coincide  with  the  arsis  or  the  thesis 
of  an  accented  syllable,  the  boundaries  of  the  foot  of  verse  and  prose 
("  Sprechtakt  ")  become  identical.2 

MEYER  states3  that  the  investigation  was  subject  to  the  following 
sources  of  error,  which  were  incapable  of  elimination  :  (i)  latent  time 
of  the  apparatus  ("  Registrirverzogerung  " ),  some  loss  in  the  time  of 
transmission,  and  in  the  quantity  of  the  energy  to  be  recorded  in  the 
passage  from  the  receiving  to  the  recording  points  being  inevitable ; 
(2)  errors  of  measurement  ("  Wahrnehmungsverzogerung" )  owing  to 
the  limited  capacity  of  the  visual  organ  to  discriminate  small  differ- 
ences. 

The  following  considerations,  as  affecting  MEYER'S  experiments,  may 
be  noted:  (i)  The  measurements  are  essentially  measurements  of 
breathing.  The  air  waves  may  or  may  not  precisely  coincide  with  the 
sounds.  (2)  An  exact  simultaneity  in  the  occurrences  within  the  central 
organs  of  the  highest  points  of  energy  for  the  innervations  of  the  vocal 
muscles  and  the  muscles  of  the  hand  may  perhaps  be  assumed.  The  ad- 
ditional assumption  is  made  that  the  registering  of  the  impressions  are 
also  synchronous.  Since,  however,  the  media  for  transmitting  the  im- 
pressions are  not  the  same  (the  air  and  the  hand),  this  may  be  unjustified. 
Moreover,  it  has  been  proved  that  no  muscular  movements  are  capable 
of  exact  coordination.  Contrary  to  the  supposition  (although  the  move- 
ments of  the  hand  are  not  reactions  to  the  movements  of  the  organs  of 
speech)  that  the  movements  of  the  hand  and  vocal  organs  are  not  sub- 
ordinate but  coordinate,  the  movements  of  the  hand  may  serve  as  a 
regulative  concomitant  of  the  movements  of  the  vocal  organs.  For  this 
reason  the  results  may  not  apply  to  the  rhythm  of  free  declamation. 


1  MEYER,  Beitrdge  zur  detitschen  Metrik,  Neuere  Sprachen,  1898  VI  134. 

2  MEYER,  as  before,  138. 

3  MKYER,  as  before,  26-30. 


6  /.    E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

TRIPLETT  and  SANFORD/  using  apparatus  similar  to  that  of  BRUCKE, 
HURST  and  McKAY  and  MEYER,  have  measured  eleven  nursery  rhymes  of 
long,  common  and  short  meter,  scanned  by  themselves  eight  or  ten  times 
with  great  regularity,  and  have  studied  without  apparatus,  the  patterns 
adopted.  A  finger  record  of  taps,  a  vocal  record  representing  breath 
puffs,  and  a  time  line,  made  by  an  interrupter  checking  off  tenths  of  a 
second,  were  traced  on  the  kymograph.  The  voice  record  was  used  for 
comparing  the  exactness  of  the  correspondence  between  the  finger  taps 
and  the  expiratory  stresses.  The  intervals  between  the  finger  taps  were 
measured. 

The  following  conclusions  were  reached  :  ( i )  If  the  pause  intervals  be- 
tween the  larger  rhythmic  units  are  excluded,  the  measures  of  scanned 
nursery  rhymes  are  approximately  uniform.  (2)  There  is  a  tendency  to 
accelerate  the  speed  of  scanning  the  successive  measures  in  the  verse 
as  well  as  the  successive  verses  themselves.  (3)  No  characteristic  differ- 
ences of  speed  are  found  between  dactylic  and  trochaic,  anapestic  and 
iambic  measures.  This  is  contrary  to  the 'results  of  previous  experi- 
menters. (4)  The  most  frequent  patterns  of  verse  have  a  characteristic 
movement,  due  partly  to  the  distribution  of  the  pauses  and  the  tendency 
to  increase  the  speed. 

This  cursory  review  of  previously  existing  methods  of  experimentally 
investigating  the  time  relations  in  speech  illustrates  and  enforces  the 
necessity  of  improved  methods  of  speech  investigation.  Two  types  of 
methods  may  be  used.  The  former  is  largely  the  method  which  has  pre- 
vailed up  to  the  present  time.  The  sounds  of  spoken  language  have 
been  measured  by  means  of  finger  beats,  currents  of  air  and  non-repro- 
ducible sound  vibrations.  A  more  direct  method  consists  in  measuring 
directly  the  sounds  recorded  in,  and  reproduced  by  a  talking  machine. 
This  method  has  the  following  advantages  : 

1.  The  instantaneous  action   of  the  recording  stylus  of  the  modern 
talking  machines  practically  eliminates  the  errors  of  the  "  latent  time" 
of  the  apparatus  and  the  recording  of  superfluous  and  irrelevant  move- 
ments. 

2.  It  is  the  only  method  by  which  the  accuracy  of  the  recorded  im- 
pressions can  be  completely  verified,  since  it  alone  affords  the  means  of 
reproducing  the  sounds  that  have  been  recorded.      The  accuracy  of  the 
impressions   recorded  upon   instruments   of  the  non-reproducing   kind, 
must  always  remain  more  or  less  conjectural. 


1  TRIPLETT  AND  SANFORD,  Studies  of  rhythm  and  meter,  Am.  Jour.   Psych.,  1901 
XII  361. 


OF  THE 

UWlVERSIT/    } 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech. 


II.     APPARATUS. 

The  experiments  now  to  be  described  were  begun  in  the  early  summer 
of  1900  and  carried  out  during  the  academic  year  1900-1901. 

The  machine  used  in  making  records  was  a  LIORET  phonograph,  re- 
sembling the  graphophone  in  its  construction.  The  rate  of  speed  was 
accurately  recorded. 

For  reproducing  purposes  an  EDISON  phonograph  was  used.  A  gear 
wheel  with  twenty-four  teeth  having  the  spaces  filled  with  vulcanized  rubber 
was  placed  on  the  axle  of  the  phonograph.  A  metal  spring  resting  upon 
the  wheel  made  contact  with  each  tooth.  Every  revolution  of  the  con- 
tact wheel  made  twenty-four  closures  of  the  circuit.  An  EWALD  magnetic 
counter  placed  in  the  circuit  indicated  the  number  of  teeth  passing  under 
the  end  of  the  spring. 

A  telegraph  key  was  placed  on  each  side  of  the  phonograph.  By 
pressing  the  knob  of  the  key  on  the  left  side,  the  current  was  sent 
through  the  counter ;  by  pressing  the  key  on  the  right  side  the  cir- 
cuit was  interrupted.  In  this  way  the  number  of  contacts  between 
the  movements  of  the  two  keys  was  obtained.  A  knowledge  of  the 
rate  of  revolution  of  the  phonograph  cylinder  when  the  record 
was  taken  made  it  possible  to  translate  the  number  of  contacts  into 
seconds. 

The  limit  of  the  greatest  possible  speed  capable  of  being  utilized  was 
determined  by  two  factors  :  (i)  the  degree  of  dexterity  developed  by  the 
experimenter  in  reacting  upon  the  telegraph  key  to  the  given  impressions  ; 
and  (2)  the  limit  of  accuracy  of  the  magnetic  counter.  Beyond  a  cer- 
tain rate  of  speed  the  counter  failed  to  register  all  the  contacts.  In  none 
of  my  measurements  was  this  limit  even  approached.  The  highest  num- 
ber of  contacts  per  minute  required  in  the  measurements  was  2,880.  The 
instrument  was  capable  of  registering  a  much  higher  number  of  contacts. 
Within  the  limits  of  speed,  however,  the  accuracy  of  the  measurements 
depended  upon  the  maintenance  of  a  fairly  constant  relation  between  the 
strength  of  the  electrical  current  and  the  tension  of  the  spring  of  the 
armature  of  the  counter  magnet.  The  accuracy  of  the  chronoscope  was 
verified  by  comparing  the  gross  measurement  of  a  large  interval  (e.  g., 
a  verse  or  a  stanza)  with  the  aggregate  of  all  the  smaller  intervals  com- 
posing it  (the  measures  and  pauses);  and  by  comparing  the  time  required 
to  measure  off  a  stanza  with  the  time  required  to  record  it,  which  had 
been  ascertained  by  the  watch. 

The  limit  of  the  slowest  speed  was  dependent  upon  discriminative 
audibility.  At  a  certain  speed  the  sounds  lose  their  articulate  character. 


8  /.    £.   Wallace  Wallin, 

Except  for  very  special  reasons,  the  speed  used  in  measuring  corresponded 
to  the  speed  used  in  taking  the  records.  This  varied  from  80  to  120 
revolutions  per  minute.  By  maintaining  the  recording  speed  the  records 
were  heard,  in  respect  to  speed  and  pitch,  as  they  were  made.  The 
measurements  which  were  made  before  the  experimenter  developed  a  high 
degree  of  proficiency  were  rejected 

The  method  of  measuring  consisted  in  first  listening,  through  the  ear 
tubes,  to  the  record  upon  the  cylinder  and  choosing  the  intervals  to  be 
measured.  The  intervals  were  then  listened  to  repeatedly,  and  each  one 
was  measured  from  four  to  five  times  by  pressing  one  key  at  the  beginning 
and  the  other  at  the  end.  The  average  of  the  different  measurements 
was  recorded  as  the  length  of  the  interval.  The  successive  measure- 
ments of  the  same  interval  differed  only  very  slightly,  and  were  frequently 
identical ;  the  measurements  were  thus  quite  accurate. 

In  making  the  phonograph  records  upon  which  this  research  is  based, 
the  procedure  was  guided  by  the  following  considerations : 

1.  All  mechanical  distractions  and  impediments,  such  as  noises,  strain 
of  the  muscles  of  the  body  or  head  occasioned  by  a  forced  standing  or 
sitting  posture,  interference  with  the  easy  movements  of  the  lips,  fatigue, 
etc.,  of  the  subjects,  were  eliminated  as  far  as  possible. 

2.  The  material  contributed  for  study  should  come  from  subjects  with- 
out bias  or  preconception. 

3.  The  subjects  were  uninstructed  in  respect  to  the  purposes  of  the  ex- 
periment, except  where  the  nature  of  the  experiment  required  otherwise, 
in  order  to  minimize  the  elements  of  unnaturalness  and  intentional  change 
of  the  manner  of  speaking. 

4.  The  subjects  were  of  varied  characters,  with  different  languages,  from 
different  countries,  of  different  stages  and  walks  of  life  (elementary  and 
high  school   pupils,  academic  and  graduate  students,  professors,  poets, 
orators,  musicians,  etc.). 

5.  The  character  of  each  record  was  made  a  true  copy  of  the  natural 
characteristics  of  the  mode  of  delivery  of  the  subject,  so  as  to  be  typic- 
ally his  own,  no  matter  what  the  idiosyncrasies. 

By  requiring  the  utterance  .to  be  natural  the  research  could  assume  the 
role  of  being  an  investigation  into  the  rhythmic  peculiarities  of  actual 
speech.  In  a  few  cases,  however,  it  seemed  advisable  to  omit  offering 
any  instructions  and  the  matter  was  left  entirely  to  the  taste  of  the  reciter. 
Moreover,  in  proffering  suggestions  due  care  was  taken  lest  the  advice 
should  tend  to  make  the  subject  too  self-conscious.  Cases  of  mechan- 
ical scansion  were  also  included  for  the  sake  of  comparison  and  complete- 
ness of  scope. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech. 


III.   THE  CENTROID. 

i.  Concept  of  the  centroid. — A-  portion  of  speech  such  as  ''the  cities 
are  full  of  pride,"  is  physically  a  vibratory  movement  of  a  complicated 
form  of  which  various  portions  can  be  assigned  in  succession  to  the 
sounds  t>,  2,  s,  i,  /,  /,  z,  etc.,  with  more  or  less  abrupt  changes  (glides) 
between  them.  The  series  of  sounds  represents  :  ( i )  a  continuous  succes- 
sion of  vocal  movements  representing  work,  (2)  a  continuous  vibration 
of  an  air  particle,  (3)  a  continuous  succession  of  sensations.  Both  the 
speaker  and  the  hearer  feel  the  recurrence  of  points  in  the  succession  at 
which  the  impression  reaches  a  maximum.  These  maxima  are  felt  to 
have  their  positions  determined  not  only  by  the  actual  maxima  of  vocal 
effort  and  of  acoustic  impression  but  also  by  the  preceding  sounds  and 
"by  the  anticipation  of  following  ones.  Owing  to  these  circumstances  the 
maxima  as  felt  may  differ  more  or  less  from  the  actual  vocal  or  acoustic 
maxima.  Such  a  maximum  of  effect  may  be  called  a  '  centroid.'  ' 

The  English  poetical  line  may  be  considered  as  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  speech-sound  distributed  so  as  to  produce  an  effect  equivalent  to 
that  of  a  certain  number  of  points  of  emphasis  at  definite  intervals. 
The  location  of  a  point  of  emphasis  is  determined  by  the  strength  of  the 
sounds  at  and  around  it.  It  is  like  the  centroid  of  a  system  of  forces  or 
the  center  of  gravity  of  a  body  in  being  the  point  at  which  we  can  con- 
sider all  the  forces  to  be  concentrated  and  yet  have  the  same  effect. 
The  centroid  is  not  a  syllable  or  a  single  sound  but  a  point  in  the 
course  of  a  sound.1 

In  the  stream  of  vocal  sounds  the  centroid  lies  in  the  syllable  that 
relative  to  adjacent  syllables,  contains  the  maximum  amount  of  force  or 
loudness.  The  syllable  containing  the  centroid  may  be  called  the  "  cen- 
troid syllable."  It  has  been  called  the  accented,  emphatic,  stressed, 
long  or  loud  syllable. 

Every  syllable  in  a  verse  or  sentence  may  contain  a  centroid.  Whether 
it  is  actually  to  become  a  centroid  syllable  when  the  words  are  read,  will 
depend  upon  its  logical  function  and  the  circumstances  of  the  utterance. 

When  the  component  sounds  of  speech  are  considered  separately,  the 
centroid  represents  the  maximum  of  energy  of  a  syllable.  This  point 
may,  theoretically,  either  fall  midway  in  the  syllable,  or  precede  or  follow 
the  middle  point.  According  to  BRiiCKE,2  basing  his  deduction  upon  the 

SCRIPTURE,  Researches  in  experimental  phonetics  (first  series},  Stud.  Yale  Psych. 
Lab.,  1899  VII  101. 

SCRIPTURE,  Elements  of  Experimental  Phonetics,  New  York  1901. 

2  BRCUKE,  Physioiogische  Grundlagen  der  neuhochdeutschen  Verskunst,  Wien  1871. 


io  /.   E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

measurement  of  scanned  verse,  when  the  vowel  of  the  emphatic  syllable 
is  short,  the  maximum  of  energy  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  vowel  or  just 
before  the  following  consonant ;  when  the  vowel  is  long  and  not  im- 
mediately followed  by  a  consonant,  it  lies  somewhere  in  the  course  of  the 
vowel ;  and  when  the  vowel  is  long,  but  does  not  terminate  the  syllable, 
the  point  lies  very  near  the  boundary  between  the  vowel  and  the  conso- 
nant. According  to  MEYER  '  the  point  of  highest  energy  in  syllables  con- 
sisting of  a  vowel  with  an  initial  consonant  lies  in  the  early  part  of  the 
syllable,  shortly  before  the  beginning  of  the  vowel  sound. 

The  physical  factors  that  locate  the  centroid  are  increase  of  amplitude, 
increase  of  length  and  change  in  pitch. 

Typical  cases  would  be  c  =  00.7  +  /0.2  +  A.i>  or  c  =  a^  +  4a  +  A.o  or 
c  =  #03  -}-  /04  -f-/o.»>  etc->  where  c  indicates  the  strength  of  a  given  cen- 
troid, #,  /  and  p  the  factors  of  amplitude,  length  and  period,  and  the 
subscripts  the  share  contributed  by  each. 

2.  Kinds  of  centroids. — Centroids  admit  of  distinctions  of  kind  only 
from  the  psychological  point  of  view.  We  may  use  the  term  "phrase 
centroid"  to  denote  the  major  or  chief  centroid  of  a  given  phrase. 
Each  phrase  should  contain  one  chief  centroid,  one  dominant  idea,  one 
specially  important  word. 

According  to  the  purposes  of  thought  and  feeling  subserved  by  the 
centroid,  we  obtain  a  threefold  division  :  rhythmic,  pronunciatory  and 
logical.2  The  function  of  the  first  is  to  mark  off  the  different  measures 
of  verse  ;  of  the  second,  to  emphasize  the  root  syllables  of  words  ;  of  the 
third,  to  single  out  prominent  words  for  special  emphasis. 

SuNDEN3  distinguishes  two  kinds  of  accent  in  Swedish:  (i)  Word 
accent,  or  the  stress  belonging  to  a  separate  word,  constituting  the  word 
when  of  two  or  more  syllables  a  sound  unity.  This  is  subdivided  into 
(a)  compound,  or  such  accent  as  belongs  to  polysyllabic  words  having 
a  grave  accent  ("gravt's"  =  accent  with  low  tone)  on  one  syllable  and 
a  strong  subsidiary  accent  ("  levis"}  on  the  other,  e.  g.,  in  Anna, 
konung  and  mdnsken  ;  and  (£)  simple,  or  the  stress  belonging  to  a  mono- 
syllabic word  with  acute  accent  ("  akut"  =  accent  with  high  tone), 
and  a  polysyllabic  word  with  a  weak  subsidiary  accent,  e.g.,  in  bokt 
backer  and  bockerna  {akut  on  first  syllable).  (2)  Phrase  or  rhetorical 
( '  *'  oratorisk  ' ' )  accent,  or  the  stress  of  a  word  in  its  relation  to  other  words. 

Physically  there  are  no  distinctions  of  kind  among  centroids.  There 
are  no  physical  signs  in  the  vibrations  upon  the  phonograph  cylinder 

1  MEYER,  Beitrdge  zur  deutschen  Metrik,  Neuere  Sprachen,  1898  VI  123. 
2LANIER,  The  Science  of  English  Verse,  Chap.  IV.,  New  York  1880. 
3  SUNDEN,  Svensk  Spraklara,  15,  Stockholm  1895. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  1 1 

whereby  the  logical  varieties  can  be  distinguished.  The  physical  process 
is  a  continuity,  admitting  of  distinctions  of  degree,  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  which  are  shared  by  all  centroids. 

That  we  are  justified  in  considering  all  kinds  of  emphatic  syllables  as 
centroid  syllables,  also  appears  from  a  consideration  of  the  centroid  as  a 
process  in  consciousness.  The  centroid  is  an  impression  which  arouses  the 
sense  of  hearing  to  a  certain  pitch  of  intensity  for  a  certain  length  of  time. 
It  is  in  respect  of  intensity  that  consciousness  distinguishes  it  from  other 
auditory  sensations  of  the  same  nature.  The  strong  sensations,  irrespec- 
tive of  logical  distinctions,  are  designated  centroid  syllables,  the  faint 
sensations,  non-centroid  ones. 

Hence,  as  an  objective  physical  occurrence,  measureable  in  amplitude, 
period  and  length,  and  as  an  event  in  consciousness,  capable  of  being 
roughly  estimated  in  respect  to  intensity,  any  emphatic  syllable  may  be 
included  in  the  generic  term  of  centroid  syllable. 

The  psychological  differences  in  the  centroid  may  be  accompanied  by 
correlative  differences  in  tone-color  or  timbre  of  voice. 

3.  Method  of  locating  the  centroid. — Two  methods  are  available  :    (i) 
We   may   measure    the    tracings    of  sound    curves    of  the    talking    ma- 
chines.    The  centroid  will  be  located  at  that  point  along  the  time-axis  of 
a  syllable  where  the  influences  of  amplitude,  length  and  pitch  are  the 
greatest.      (2)   By  listening  to  a  phonograph  record,  and  comparing  thef 
consecutive  syllables  in  respect  to  the  intensity  of  the  auditory  sensation 
which  they  arouse,  we  may  classify  the  syllables  as  weak  and  strong,  j 
This  purely  psychological  method  lies  closest  to  nature,  because  speech  \ 
centroids,  fundamentally  considered,  are  mental  quantities. 

The  psychological  method,  according  to  which  the  centroids  have  been 
located  in  the  present  experiment,  has  been  attended  with  some  difficulty. 
It  has  sometimes,  though  rarely,  been  difficult  to  determine  which  of 
two,  or  whether  any  one  of  two,  consecutive  syllables  is  a  centroid. 
Appeal  has  frequently  been  made  to  other  persons.  Where  doubtful  cases 
exist,  the  fact  is  indicated  in  the  records  by  placing  a  ?  directly  after  the 
centroid. 

4.  The  elements  of  the  centroid. — The  centroid  in  speech  is  the  result 
of  a  number  of  complex  mental  forces  which  constitute  an  original  and 
inseparable  synthesis,  and  which  are  the  indispensable  conditions  of  the 
life  of  the  centroid.     These  elements,  constituting  the  fundamental  frame- 
work of  the  centroid,  are  capable  of  isolation  by  processes  of  analysis  only ; 
in  any  concrete  case  they  constitute  an  irreducible  complexity. 

This  complexity  of  elements  is  threefold — including  the  factor  of  time, 
factor  of  force,  and  factor  of  pitch.  Every  sound  that  is  uttered  is  con- 


12  /.   E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

ditioned  on  these  three  fundamental  processes.  Every  sound  is  con- 
crete— of  a  particular  pitch,  intensity  and  duration. 

Furthermore,  in  order  to  excite  the  organ  of  hearing  and  give  rise  to  a 
percept,  every  sound  must  attain  a  certain  intensity,  persist  for  a  certain 
time,  and  fall  within  the  limits  of  the  psychological  scale  of  pitch. 
Hence,  both  physically  and  psychologically  considered,  these  three 
elements  form  the  ultimate  elments  of  the  centroid. 

5.  The  essence  of  the  centroid. — The  question  now  arises,  which,  or 
how  many,  of  these  factors  constitute  the  essence  of  a  centroid  ? 

(#)  Historical  summary. — Several  answers, somewhat  obscure  and  incon- 
sistent, have  been  given  to  the  above  questions.  To  enter  into  a  detailed 
discussion  of  these  would  be  out  of  place.  The  distinctions  that  have 
been  introduced  have  turned  either  upon  differences  as  existing  between 
different  languages  or  as  existing  within  a  given  language. 

According  to  SWEET*  and  PoE2  accent  is  practically  non-existent  in 
French  poetry. 

Accent  in  the  case  of  ancient  Latin8  and  Greek,4  as  well  as  in  ancient 
and  modern  Sanscrit 5  and  Persian,  has  been  described  in  terms  of  pitch. 
The  nearest  modern  approaches  to  this  species  of  emphasis  are  the  Swedish 
and  Norwegian  languages  {akut  accent},  the  verse  of  which,  however,  is 
governed  by  different  laws.  The  Scotch  emphatic  syllable,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  been  characterized  as  having  a  "grave  tone,"6 — that  is  to 
say,  as  lacking  almost  entirely  in  pitch  modification.  Theoretically 
Scotch  would  afford  an  instance  of  a  monotone  speech.  SUNDEN  7  states 
that  grave  accent  (gravts*)  is  peculiar  to  Swedish  and  Norwegian  ;  and 
elsewhere,8  that  in  Swedish  the  elements  of  pitch  (melodic  accent, 
"  tonhojd*1'}  and  loudness  (expiratory  or  dynamic  accent,  tonvikt") 
coincide,  and  that  an  accented9  syllable  (akut  or  gravis}  is  always  long. 

The  property  of  duration  is  said  to  contain  the  essence  of  the  centroid 
in  Latin,  Greek,  Arabic,  Persian  and  Sanskrit,  by  MAYOR10  and  ELLIS. " 

I  SWEET,  Primer  of  Phonetics,  45-97,  Oxford  1890. 

*PoE,  The  Rationale  of  Verse,  Works,  VI  100,  Chicago  1895. 
3ELLis,  The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  21,  London  1874. 
4SYMONDS,    Sketches  and  Studies  in   Southern   Europe,   II   328,  New   York    1880. 
CLARK,  Manual  of  Linguistics,  155 

5  CLARK,  Manual  of  Linguistics,  155. 

6  GUEST,  History  of  English  Rhythms,  II,  London  1882. 

7  SUNDEN,  Svensk  Spraklara,  15,  Stockholm  1895. 

8  As  above,  14,  17. 

9  SUNDEN,  Kort  Ofversigt  af  Svenska  Vitterhetens  Historia,  20,  Stockholm  1885. 
10 MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  London  1886. 

II  ELLIS;  The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  21,  London  1874. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  13 

In  the  following  two  groups,  emphasis  is  resolved  into  terms  of  loud- 
ness  or  expiratory  stress :  Modern  Greek,  Italian,  Spanish,  German  and 
English; l  and  old  Italic,  Keltic,  Teutonic  and  Lithuanian.2 

Just  how  far  these  distinctions  are  valid,  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  dis- 
cuss. This  remains  as  a  problem  for  future  investigation. 

We  have  reserved  the  theories  of  English  accent  for  separate  consid- 
eration. It  is  in  this  province  that  our  chief  concern  lies. 

It  is  difficult  to  classify,  or  bring  into  any  sort  of  unity,  the  different 
utterances  on  the  nature  of  the  centroid  in  English  verse,  so  indefinite 
and  conflicting  are  the  statements — statements  that  have  been  charac- 
terized as  more  pitiable  nonsense  than  has  ever  been  written  on  any 
other  subject  under  the  sun.3  If  we  divorce  the  problem  now  under  con- 
sideration from  the  connected  problem  of  the  quantitative  character  of 
English  verse,  which  is  reserved  for  discussion  in  the  following  section, 
the  difficulty  is  increased.  We  are  here  concerned  with  the  properties 
only  of  the  centroid  as  such,  and  not  of  the  centroid  as  a  member  of  a 
succession  of  centroids. 

The  most  prominent  feature  in  the  discussions  of  English  prosody  is 
the  widespread  assumption  that  the  centroid  in  English  is  essentially  a 
phenomenon  of  loudness,  force,  or  stress.  This  position  is  maintained 
by  ABBOTT  and  SEELEY,*  MAYOR, 5  WALLis,6  GUEST,G  GURNEY/  ELLIS,* 
LANIERS  and  others.  A  somewhat  modified  view  is  to  the  effect  that  there 
is  a  natural,  although  not  an  essential,  connection  between  increase  of  force 
and  increase  of  duration.10  According  to  this  view  quantity  is  secondary  ; 
it  is  the  variable  element,  while  loudness  is  the  stable  element.  ARNOLD  " 
goes  perhaps  a  step  further  in  affirming  that  in  English  poetry,  "  accented 
syllables  are  long,  and  unaccented  short. ' '  POE  12  holds  that  our  start- 
ing point  in  the  conception  of  verse  is  quantity  or  length  ;  we  begin  with 
the  long  syllable,  and  the  long  syllable  is  the, encumbered  or  emphatic  one. 
JOHNSON,  13  the  litterateur,  transferred  the  conditions  of  classical  accent  to 

1  MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  London  1886. 
2 CLARK,  Manual  of  Linguistics,  155. 

3  POE,  The  Rationale  of  Verse,  Works,  VI  59,  Chicago  1895. 

4  ABBOTT  AND  SEELEY,  English  Lessons  for  English  People,  153-154,  Boston  1880. 

5  MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  III,  London  1886. 

*  GUEST,  A  History  of  English  Rhythms.  IV,  London  1882. 

7  GURNEY,  The  Power  of  Sound,  429,  433,  437,  London  1880. 

*  ELLIS,  The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  II,  London  1874. 
«LANIER,  The  Science  of  English  Verse,  I  and  II,  New  York  1880. 

10  SEELEY  AND  ABBOT,  GUEST,  MAYOR,  ELLIS,  SYMONDS. 

11  ARNOLD,  Manual  of  English  Literature. 

12  POE,  The  Rationale  of  Verse,  Works,  VI  59,  79.  88,  Chicago  1895. 

13  GUEST,  as  above  ;  CORSON,  A  Primer  of  English  Verse,  IV,  Boston  1893. 


14  /.    E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

English  verse  :  the  emphatic  syllable  is  invariably  long.  LOTZE  1  ventures 
the  suggestion,  without  limiting  its  applicability  to  any  one  language,  that 
the  emphatic  syllable  always  requires  a  longer  "  Sprechzeit." 

MiTFORD,2  a  musician,  held  that  "sharpness"  or  pitch  constituted 
the  essence  of  the  accented  syllable;  and  SCHMIDT/  that  there  is  an 
almost  inseparable  connection  between  pitch  and  intensity  in  English. 
Finally,  SWEET*  asserts  a  natural,  though  not  a  necessary  connection  be- 
tween all  the  three  elements. 

(^)  Experimental  solution,      (i)  Method. — The  method  employed  in 

determining  the  essence  of  the  centroid  was  as  follows  :   Selecting  the 

centroids  which  had  been  previously  located,  of  any  given  record,  the 

stylus  of  the  recorder  was  made  to  pass  over  each  syllable  a  score  or  so 

f  of  times,  with  varying  rates  of  rotation  of  the  cylinder.      By  thus  listen- 

I  ing  attentively  to  the  same  syllable  under  varying  conditions,    it  was 

jjfr       possible  to  determine  what  element,  or  elements,  were  predominant  in 

/  the  sense-impression. 

The  results  were  indicated  by  placing  appropriate  symbols  above  the 
syllables.  The  next  step  consisted  in  verifying,  by  all  available  means, 
the  results  of  mental  discrimination.  In  respect  to  duration,  the  method 
employed  was  to  measure  the  length  of  the  syllables  marked  duration 
centroids  ;  in  respect  of  pitch,  the  syllables  marked  pitch  centroids  were 
compared  with  the  pitch  of  adjacent  syllables  by  aid  of  the  piano. 
The  element  of  duration  and  pitch  could  thus  be  estimated  with 
great  precision  as  regards  their  physical  aspects.  Viewed  phycholog- 
ically,  however,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  importance 
as  elements  of  intensive  states  of  consciousness,  a  value  could  be  assigned 
to  each  only  when  compared  with  other  points  of  emphasis,  by  way  of 
contrast,  similarity,  etc.  Finally,  the  estimate  of  loudness  reposes  upon 
the  immediate  testimony  of  consciousness.  These  considerations,  how- 
ever, do  not  effect  the  certitude  of  the  determinations  with  reference  to 
the  mere  differentiation  of  the  different  factors.  It  is  only  as  respects 
the  degree  of  loudness  that  the  judgments  may  be  questioned. 

Altogether  513  centroids,  selected  from  eight  different  records  were 
studied,  namely,  those  of  W.  L.  P.,  J.  W.  R.,  G.  A.  A.,  C.  O.  S.,  A. 
D.  B.,  C.  O.,  W.  C.  and  W.  W.  The  results  are  given  in  the  two  fol- 
lowing tables. 


1  LOTZE,  Geschichte  des  Aesthetik,  301. 

2  GUEST  IV,  and  CORSON  IV,  as  before. 

3  SCHMIDT,  Introduction  to  the  Rhythmic  and  Metric  of  the  Classical  Languages, 
Boston  1878. 

4  SWEET,  Primer  of  Phonetics,  67,  Oxford  1890. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  15 

TABLE  I. 

Centroid  elements. 
Principle  of  synthesis. 


999 


Ol       O2       O3     |   ©1    ©2    ©3  ;   ©1     ©'2     ©3 

250    35        3!  -5   16  20;         9       7 
288 1  41 :  16 


©     ©     © 
•  i    •      « 


©      ©  3 

A  ]    A  2  AS 

3    6  2 

15  ii 


A  A  A 
•  l  «  « 
I  4  2 


A  ]    A  2     AS 

4      I 


«,  number  of  centroids. 

t,  aggregate  number  of  centroids  per  group. 

j,  2,  3,  degrees  of  centroids. 

Number  of  centroids  in  entire  series  of  groups,  383. 

TABLE  II. 

Centroid  elements. 
Principle  of  substitution. 


©1         ©2         ©3        •!         »2         ©3 

15      30      14     28      20        7 


A  i         A  2 

"      5 


t  59  i  55  I  16 

n  =  number  of  centroids. 
/  =  aggregate  number  of  centroids  per  group, 
u  2>  3'  degrees  of  centroids. 
Number  of  centroids  in  entire  series  of  groups,  130. 

(2)  Explanation  of  symbols. — The  following  symbols  are  designed  to 
represent  the  properties,  or  property,  which  enter  into  the  make  up  of 
the  centroid. 

The  open  circle  (o)  denotes  a  relative  equality  of  pitch,  loudness  and 
duration  emphasis.  Ideally  this  sign  should  signify  that  the  share  con- 
tributed by  anyone  of  these  elements  is  equal  to  that  of  any  one  of  the 
others.  The  equality,  however,  is  only  relative.  In  English  and  per- 
chance in  other  modern  languages,  the  element  which  has  the  greatest 
claim  to  supremacy  is  that  of  loudness.  Hence  the  open  circle  is  rep- 
resentative of  a  synthesis  of  three  elements,  in  which  the  element  of 
loudness  is  slightly  predominant. 

In  the  dot  circle  (©),  or  the  circle  with  the  dot  in  the  center,  the  fac- 
tor of  loudness  distinctly  predominates  over  the  factors  of  duration  and 
pitch  ;  in  the  closed  circle  (•)  the  element  of  duration  preponderates  ; 
and  in  the  inverted  triangle  the  pitch  factor  overbalances  the  other  two. 
Of  the  latter  sort  two  alternatives  are  possible.  The  pitch  emphasis  may 
be  due,  in  both  cases  by  way  of  contrast,  to  a  raising  (A)  or  lowering 
(  v)  of  the  pitch.  The  latter  is  the  rarer  of  the  two,  as  will  be  seen  by 
a  study  of  the  records.  Theoretically,  either  is  an  extreme  departure  f  \^ 
from  the  medium  pitch  of  any  given  record,  and  tends  to  an  increase  of 
emphasis. 


—7' 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


1 6  /.    E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

The  superposition  of  one  symbol  upon  another  signifies  that  the  symbol 
which  is  placed  underneath  contributes  the  main  part  of  the  total  effect. 
The  upper  sign  indicates  the  element  next  in  importance.  The  third 
element,  of  course,  is  subordinate  to  the  element  of  the  uppermost  sign. 

In  each  of  these  cases  one  element  is  predominant ;  while  the  other 
two  are  subordinate  to  this  element,  they  may  be  equal  to  each  other. 
The  weaker  elements  are  always  present  as  the  substratum  of  the  centroid. 
They  are  the  conditions  of  its  very  possibility  as  a  vocal  phenomenon. 
The  abolition  of  any  one  signifies  the  abolition  of  the  process  of  vocal- 
ization. 

The  effect  of  these  several  amalgamations,  as  well  as  the  relations 
which  they  sustain  to  one  another  in  respect  to  frequency  and  stress,  will 
be  seen  in  what  follows. 

6.  Degrees  of  the  centroid. — The  subscripts  to  the  symbols  denote 
the  relative  degrees  of  the  force  or  strength  of  the  centroid  as  an  effect 
in  consciousness.  They  indicate  the  degree  of  the  entire  centroid  and 
not  that  of  the  particular  elements  to  which  they  are  attached.  A  great 
number  of  variations  in  stress  are  possible,  but  the  degrees  have  been 
limited  to  the  first,  second  and  third.  Consciousness  can  immediately 
distinguish  three  degrees  of  auditory  sensations:  (i)  high,  medium, 
low;  (2)  loud,  medium,  weak;  (3)  long,  medium,  short. 

ELLIS/  has  elaborated  a  scheme,  whose  main  defect  is  its  over-minute- 
ness of  analysis,  in  which  five  different  elements  (force,  length,  pitch, 
weight,  and  silence)  of  emphasis  are  distinguished.  To  each  one  of 
these  elements  he  ascribes  nine  possible  degrees  of  stress.  The  theory 
has  been  justly  criticised,  as  well  as  misinterpreted.2  The  misinterpre- 
tation is  due  to  a  misunderstanding  of  the  nature  of  the  centroid.  The 
]  centroid,  as  already  affirmed,  is  not  the  resultant  of  the  agglomeration  of 
/  isolated  fragments  superimposed  upon  one  another,  but  a  complexity  orig- 
j  inally  and  inseparably  multiplex.  None  of  its  elements  exists  in  isolation. 
*  Nothing  is  added  to  a  third  degree  centroid,  except  an  intensification  of 
one  or  all  of  its  elements.  Hence  the  scheme  of  ELLIS  provides  for  nine 
degress  of  stress,  and  not  for  forty- five,3  as  has  been  supposed. 

A  like  over-minuteness  of  analysis  is  characteristic  of  the  system 
of  SWEET. 4  He  distinguishes  five  degrees  of  quantity  (very  long, 
long,  half  long  or  medium,  short,  very  short),  three  degrees  of  force 
(level,  crescendo,  diminuendo),  four  degrees  of  stress  (very  strong, 

v  *  ELLIS  Accent  and  emphasis,  Trans.  Eng.  Philol.  Soc.,  1873-74  and  June,  1876. 

2  MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  57~74,  London  1886. 

3  MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  69,   London  1886. 

4  SWEET,  Primer  of  Phonetics,  43-66,  Oxford  1890. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  1 7 

strong,  half  strong,  weak),  and  three  primary  forms  of  intonation  (level, 
rising,  falling). 

In  Swedish  l  the  following  degrees  are  recognized :  4th,  the  principal 
accent  of  the  acute  species,  e.  g.,  the  first  syllable  of  anden  (from  and)  ; 
3d,  the  principal  accent  of  the  grave  species,  e.  g.,  the  first  syllable  of 
anden  (from  ande)  ;  2d,  the  strong  subsidiary  accent,  e.  g.,  the  second 
syllable  of  anden  (from  ande~}\  ist,  the  weak  subsidiary  accent,  e.  g., 
the  first  and  third  syllable  of  universitet ;  and  o,  the  weakest  accent 
("  tonloshet "),  e.  g.y  the  second  and  fourth  syllables  of  universitet. 
No  word  has  more  than  one  principal  accent  (4th  or  3d),  nor  more  than 
one  strong  subsidiary  (2d). 

The  groups  in  Tables  I.  and  II.  are  arranged  according  to  the  order 
of  frequency  of  occurrence.  We  shall  consider  them  separately  under  the 
principles  which  they  exemplify. 

Principle  of  synthesis. — The  several  groups  of  Table  I.,  which  result 
from  the  different  modes  of  combination  of  the  elements,  may  be 
studied  from  two  points  of  view  :  frequency  of  occurrence  and  degree  of 
intensity. 

The  most  frequent  combination  is  o,  where  loudness  is  slightly  more 
prominent  than  duration  and  pitch.  This  constitutes  75.1%  of  all 
the  groups.  The  next,  the  loudness-pitch  fusion  (£),  where  loud- 
ness  is  distinctly  predominant,  represents  10.7%  ;  the  loudness-duration 
(§),  4.1%  ;  the  duration-loudness  (g),  3.9%  ;  the  pitch-loudness  (§), 
2.8%;  the  duration -pitch  (£),  1.8%;  and  the  pitch-duration  (£),  1.3%. 
The  two  extremes  consist  of  the  o  and  the  £  (pitch-duration) .  Perhaps  it 
may  be  justifiable  to  regard  the  former  as  the  normal,  or  most  natural,  and 
the  latter  as  the  abnormal,  or  most  unnatural,  mode  of  fusion.  A  fact 
scarcely  less  striking  is  that  the  loudness-pitch  (Q  )  combination  is  almost 
equal  in  frequency  to  all  the  others,  exclusive  of  the  o  centroid.  In 
respect  to  frequency,  therefore,  the  element  of  loudness  stands  pre- 
eminent. It  is  present  as  a  distinctly  apprehended  element  in  all  except 
two  groups  of  combinations. 

The  following  percentages,  as  to  the  degree  of  intensity  arising  from 
these  fusions,  obtain  between  the  different  degrees  of  each  mode  of  syn- 
thesis : 


2°  =  93-3 
(3°=    i  (3°  -48.7  t  3°  =43-7  (3°=    6.6 


3°  =  l8.2  (30  =  28.5  (30  =  20 


'SUNDEN,  Svensk  Spraklara,  14,  Stockholm  1895. 


1 8  /.   E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

1.  Of  all  the  fusions 'the  o  (normal)  centroid  alone  has  the  highest 
percentage  in  the  first  degree  and  the  lowest  in  the  third  degree.      All 
the  others  have  the  smallest  percentage  in  the  first  degree,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  §   (pitch-intensity). 

Psychologically,  this  signifies  that  the  normal  or  most  prevalent  mode 
of  synthesis,  though  excelling  in  frequency,  is  vastly  inferior  in  intensity. 
When  an  increase  in  intensity  is  effected,  some  one  factor  gains 
prominence. 

2.  The  loudness-pitch  (£)  synthesis  alone  has  the  highest  percentage 
in  the  third  degree.      Hence  this  is  the  most  effective  mode  of  fusion  in 
respect  of  intensity.      The   loudness-duration  synthesis    (g)    is  a  close 
second. 

3.  All  of  the  last  five  modes  of  synthesis  of  Table  I.  (loudness-dura- 
tion,  duration-loudness,  pitch-loudness,   duration-pitch,  pitch-duration) 
have   the  highest  percentage  of  centroids    in  the  second  degree.     As 
second  degree  centroids,  the  duration-loudness  and  pitch-duration  stand 
preeminent. 

Thus  far  the  elements  have  been  considered  in  conjunction.  No  one 
element  has  been  supreme.  We  now  proceed  to  study  the  cases  in  which 
some  one  element  predominates. 

Principle  of  substitution. — The  percentages  of  frequency  are  as  follows 
(Table  II.):  loudness,  45.3  percent.;  duration,  42.3  per  cent.;  and 
pitch,  12.3  per  cent.  The  proportion,  though  not  as  large  as  for  the 
previous  class,  is  seen  to  follow  the  same  general  order  ;  the  extremes  are 
composed  of  the  loudness  and  pitch  centroids.  In  so.  far  as  these  may 
be  regarded  as  independent  sources  of  intensity,  loudness  and  duration 
are  each  employed  nearly  four  times  as  frequently  as  pitch.  Loudness  is 
slightly  more  prevalent  than  duration. 

The  average  length  of  the  duration  type  was  0.28%  which  exceeds  the 
average  length  of  the  normal  centroid  by  0.09*.  That  is,  it  is  1.47 
times  longer  than  the  average  length  of  the  ordinary  emphatic  syllable 
(falling  under  the  principle  of  synthesis). 

As  to  degrees  of  intensity,  the  following  relations  are  sustained  : 


2°=5°-8  •  i   2°  =36.3 

3°  =12.7 

Observations  and  conclusions. — A  study  of  the  two  principles  suggests 
the  following  conclusions : 

i.  The  element  of  loudness  ranks  highest  in  the  degree  of  intensity 
attainable  through  the  employment  of  any  one  element  as  a  substitutive 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  1 9 

instrumentality ;  duration  is  equal  to  about  one-half  the  effectiveness  of 
loudness,  while  pitch  independently  is  inferior  to  duration.  In  some 
records  these  elements  very  rarely  play  an  approximately  independent  role. 
This  tends  to  heighten  the  effect,  in  harmony  with  the  general  principle 
of  contrast,  when  they  are  fitly  employed. 

2.  The  chief  function  of  duration  and  pitch  as  substitutive  elements 
consists  in  producing  a  first  degree  centroid,  or  in  constituting  a  doubt- 
ful syllable,  as  compared  with  an  adjoining  syllable,  a  centroid  syllable. 

Speculation  may  be  indulged  in  as  to  the  special  functions,  psycholog- 
ically, of  pitch  and  duration  emphasis,  considered  as  vehicles  for  express- 
ing different  states  of  thought  and  feeling.  It  may  be  suggested  that  the 
third  degree  duration  emphasis  seems  specially  adapted  to  express  the 
emotions  of  awe  and  grandeur,  as  well  as  solemn  and  grave  thoughts. 
Notice,  for  example,  the  frequent  use  that  is  made  of  the  duration  type 
of  emphasis  in  the  pulpit  and  on  the  rostrum  (cf.  record  of  C.O.S., 
below). 

3.  The   chief  function  of  loudness  as  a  substitutive   property,  appears- 
to  consist  in  producing  a  second  degree  centroid;   a  like  function  seems 
to  be  subserved  by  the  duration  loudness  (§),  the  pitch-duration  (?  ),  the 
duration-pitch  (£)  and  pitch-loudness   (§)  centroids.      Loudness  inde- 
pendently is  equal  to  any  one  of  these  integrations  in  effectiveness  of 
intensity. 

4.  The  thought   is  suggested  that  the  function  of  the  coalescence   of 
loudness  and  pitch  (Q  ),  and  probably  of  loudness  and  duration  (§),  lies 
in  the  production  of  a  third  degree,  or  maximum,  centroid  effect.      It  is 
the  former  mode  of  synthesis   that  displays  a  highest  percentage  in  the 
third  degree. 

5.  The   function  of  the  loudness-pitch-duration  (o)  mode  of  fusion, 
in  which  loudness  is  slightly  the  most  important  element,   consists  in 
serving  as  the  substrate  of  the  speech  centroid ;  and  in  constituting  a 
syllable  a  centroid  syllable  when  a  constituent  of  a  sequence  of  words. 

Assuming  o  to  be  the  threshold  of  intensity  of  the  centroid,  all  syl- 
lables that  fall  below  the  threshold  may  be  designated  non-centroidal  or 
weak  syllables.  They  are  lesser  or  fractional  centroid  syllables.  There  is 
a  natural  series  of  gradations  below,  as  well  as  above,  the  threshold  of  the 
centroid.  The  threshold  is  always  relative  to  any  given  speech  record  ; 
it  is  not  a  fixed  quantity  but  is  always  more  or  less  arbitrary. 

6.  A  comparison  of  the  two  principles  shows  that  the  principle  of  syn- 
thesis, in  respect  to  frequency  of  employment,  sustains  a  relation  to  the 
principle  of  substitution,  approximately  as  3  :  i.    The  integrated  centroids 
are  employed  about  three  times  as  frequently  as  the  substitutive  centroids. 


2o  /.   E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

7.  In  respect  to  the  third  degree  of  intensity,  the  proportion  between 
the  effectiveness  of  the  mode  of  synthesis  centroids  and  the  mode  of  sub- 
stitution centroids  is  as  1.54  :  i.      For  the  second  degree,  the  proportion 
is  as  1.41  :  i  ;  and  for  the  first  degree,  as  i  :  2.47.      In  other  words,  the 
second  and  third  degree  integrated  centroids  are  each  about  50  per  cent, 
more  frequent  than  the  second  and  third  degree  substitutive  centroids. 
The  first  degree  substitutive  centroids,  on  the  other  hand,  are  about  two 
and  a  half  times  more  frequent  than  the  integrated  centroids.     The  cen- 
troids consisting  of  integrated  elements  are  thus  seen  to  be  far  superior 
to  the  centroids  consisting  of  substitutive  elements,  as  regards  intensity. 

8.  To  adequately  account1  for  all  the  variety  of  force  relations  obtain- 
ing among  centroids,  two  principles  have  to  be  invoked  :   the  principle 
of  substitution  and  the  principle  of  synthesis.      Both  are  important,  but 
the   last  is  the  more  effectively  employed,   both  with  reference  to  fre- 
quency and  strength.      The  employment  of  both  principles  conduces  to 
pleasing  variety,  richness  and  melody,  and  physical  and  mental  economy 
in  speech.     A  due  observance  of  the  two  principles  contributes  no  incon- 
siderable part  to  the  enjoyment  derived  from  listening  to  a  good  reading. 

9.  Although  the  essence  of  the  centroid  is  always  a  threefold  com- 
plexity, any  one  of  the  elements  may  become  predominant,  though  not 
entirely  supreme. 

7.  Relation  of  the  centroid  to  the  parts  of  speech. — A  question  which  is 
immediately  suggested  by  the  foregoing  considerations  is  the  relation, 
both  in  respect  of  prevalence  and  degree  of  intensity,  which  the  parts  of 
speech  sustain  to  the  centroid.  To  determine  this,  336  centroids  were 
classified  according  to  the  kinds  of  words  of  which  they  were  composed. 
The  results  are  tabulated  in  Tables  III.  and  IV. 


TABLE 

III. 

Distribution  of  the  centroid  among  parts 

of  speech. 

Kind. 

n 

Nouns, 

107 

0.31 

Verbs, 

77 

.22 

Adjectives, 

59 

•17 

Adverbs, 

40 

.1  I 

Conjunctions, 

21 

.06 

Prepositions, 

16 

.04 

Personal  pronouns, 

ii 

•03 

Proper  nouns, 

4 

.OI 

Interjections, 

i 

.003 

n,  number  of  occurrences. 

%,  percentage  of 

all  occurrences. 

1  The  element  of  quality,  or  timbre,  has  been  left  out  of  the  account. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  2  i 

TABLE  IV. 

Relation  of  degrees  of  cent  raids  to  parts  of  speech. 

Kind.  1°  11°  III0 

Nouns,  0.54  0.37  009 

Verbs,  .54  .35  .10 

Adjectives,  .35  .44  .20 

Adverbs,  .77  .15  .07 

Conjunctions,  .95  .00  .04 

Prepositions,  I.oo  .00  .00 

Personal  pronouns,  .54  .27  .18 

Proper  nouns,  .50  .00  .50 

Interjections,  .00  .00  I.oo 

8.  Observations  and  conclusions. — While  the  determinations  are  largely 
tentative,  they  point  to  a  few  facts  which  may  be  accepted  as  trustworthy. 

1.  The   nouns  and  verbs  rank  highest,  respectively,  in   grade  of  fre- 
quency.    The  adjectives  come  third,  with  a  little  over  one-half  the  fre- 
quency of  the  nouns,  and  a  trifle  over  three- fourths  the  frequency  of  the 
verbs.     The  interjections  and  the  proper  nouns  rank  the  lowest. 

2.  Excluding  the  interjections,  only  one  case  of  which  was  studied, 
all  the  different  kinds  of  words  have  their  highest  percentage  in  the  first 
degree,  except  the  adjectives  and  the  proper  nouns.     The  latter  are  evenly 
distributed  among  the  first  and  third  degree  centroids.     The  former  have 
the  largest  percentage  in  the  second  degree,  and  also  rank  next  to  the 
highest  of  any  part  of  speech  in  the  third  degree  column.     As  between 
nouns  and  verbs,  a  parallel  proportion  obtains.      Over  half  the  number 
are  first  degree,  a  little  over  one-third  are  second  degree,  and  only  one- 
tenth  are  third  degree  centroids.     The  personal  pronouns  follow  the  same 
general  course  except  that  the  percentage  in  the  third  degree  is  relatively 
about  twice  as  high.      In  the  adverbs,  on  the  other  hand,  the  gradation 
is  very  rapid  from  the  1°  to  the  11°  ;  the  percentage  of  III0  is  about  one- 
half  of  11°  adverbs.     The  conjunctions  and  prepositions  are  almost  wholly 
limetd  to  the  first  degree. 

In  the  main,  then,  it  seems  that,  as  regards  the  intensive  or  stress  as- 
pect of  words,  the  parts  of  speech  rank  in  the  following  order :  proper 
nouns,  adjectives,  personal  pronouns,  verbs,  nouns,  adverbs,  conjunctions 
and  prepositions.  The  proper  nouns,  however,  may  be  considered  doubt- 
ful, as  only  four  cases  were  studied. 

The  subsumption  according  to  degree  of  stress  differs,  it  will  be  seen, 
from  the  subsumption  according  to  the  frequency  of  occurrence. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  results  with  the  rules  of  accentuation 
propounded  by  GUEST/  according  to  which  articles  are  rarely  accented ; 

1  GUEST,  A  History  of  English  Rhythms,  85,  London  1882. 


22  /.    E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

qualifying  words — for  example,  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  possessive  pro- 
nouns— receive  a  fainter  accent  than  the  words  they  qualify  ;  personal  and 
relative  pronouns  take  a  fainter  accent  than  the  verbs  ;  and  in  words  com- 
pounded of  a  substantive  and  adjective,  the  accent  falls  on  the  adjective. 
This  theory  is  somewhat  at  variance  with  the  above  determinations. 

SUNDEN  *  holds  that  articles  in  Swedish  are  never  accented.  Pronouns, 
auxiliary  verbs,  prepositions  and  conjunctions  are  generally  not  accented. 

It  is  quite  apparent  upon  the  surface,  that,  with  reference  to  any  part 
of  speech,  no  rules  can  be  laid  down  that  admit  of  no  exceptions.  The 
same  noun,  adjective,  verb,  adverb,  pronoun,  etc.,  may  at  one  time  be 
a  first,  at  another  a  second,  and  at  yet  another  a  third  degree  centroid, 
depending  upon  the  relative  importance  which  the  word  plays  as  a  vehicle 
for  the  conveyance  of  the  thought  that  is  uppermost  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker  on  any  given  occasion. 

9.  Recapitulation.  — The  discussion  of  the  preceding  pages  has  been  con- 
fined to  a  treatment  of  the  centroid  as  an  isolated  element  in  speech — 
that  is,  a  definition  of  the  concept,  the  kinds,  the  elements,  degrees  and 
essence  (as  illustrated  in  the  principles  of  integration  and  substitution), 
and  the  word-analysis  of  the  centroid,  have  been  given.  The  next  step 
consists  in  studying  the  centroid  as  a  constituent  member  in  a  sequence 
of  centroids.  This  phase  of  our  enquiry  diverges  in  two  directions. 
On  the  one  hand,  we  have  to  consider  the  relations  which  centroidal  and 
non-centroidal  syllables  sustain  to  one  another  as  respects  duration, 
whether  that  of  equivalence,  or  of  simple  or  complex  proportion.  This 
problem  concerns  the  question  of  the  ''quantitative  character  of  verse." 
On  the  other  hand,  we  have  to  consider  centroids  as  recurrences,  and 
determine  whether  the  time  intervals  between  them  are  equal.  This 
problem  deals  with  the  question  of  the  succession  of  the  centroids. 

Both  of  the  above  problems  are  phenomena  of  time.  Much  confusion 
has  obtained  with  reference  to  their  relations,  in  writings  on  the  "time- 
theory  of  verse."  The  signification  of  the  term  "quantity"  has  cus- 
tomarily been  extended  so  as  to  become  coextensive  with  all  the  time  ele- 
ments of  rhythmical  phenomena — succession,  recurrence,  duration,  etc. 
•"  Quantity,"  however,  is  a  phenomenon  of  duration  ;  succession,  a  phe- 
nomenon of  intermittent  recurrence.  The  two  are  separate  and  distinct, 
and  should  not  be  made  interchangeable  terms  in  speech.  Duration  is 
independent  of  repetition  ;  repetition  involves  duration.  Duration,  as 
•synonymous  with  quantity  in  speech,  is  an  uninterrupted  span ;  succes- 
sion, a  series  of  long  or  short  spans. 

1  SUNDEN,  Svensk  Spraklara,  15,  Stockholm  1895. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  23 

The  specific  task  of  the  first  enquiry  is  to  measure   the  time  occu- 1 
pancy   of  elementary   sounds,   centroidal   and   non-centroidal,    and   the  \ 
gaps  occurring  between  them  (not  pauses).     The  function  of  the  latter, 
starting  with  this  given  manifold,  is  to  determine  the  exactness  of  the 
coordinations  of  the   intervals  which   occur  between   the  momenta  of 
rhythmical  wholes ;   and  to  disclose  the  principles  governing  the  rhythm 
of  speech. 

IV.     THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    SEPARATE    SOUNDS    AND    SILENCES. 

i.  Explanation.  Speech,  structually  considered,  is  a  complex  synthe- 
sis of  a  number  of  formal  unities.  The  following  may  be  distinguished  : 
( i )  the  unity  of  the  poem  or  discourse,  as  a  whole,  governed  by  the 
principle  of  the  unifying  actus  of  the  theme ;  (2)  the  unities  of  the  sec- 
tions and  subdivisions,  governed  by  the  principle  of  the  logical  subordi- 
nation of  the  parts  to  the  whole  ;  (3)  the  unities — the  unities  of  speech 
par-excellence — of  the  particular  groups  of  words  or  syllables  which  are 
separated  from  other  groups  by  pauses,  governed  by  the  principle  of  the 
pause — punctuation-mark  or  non-punctuation-mark  pause — and  the  expi- 
ration interval;  (4)  the  unities  of  poetical  verses,  governed  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  terminal  pause;  and  (5)  the  more  ultimate  unities,  consist- 
ing of  separate  sounds  or  syllables,  governed  by  the  principle  of  the 
silences  or  glides  which  separate  them,  as  dependent  upon  the  action  of 
the  vocal  organs. 

The  first  two  classes  of  unitary  groups  are  easily  recognizable  upon  the 
printed  page  ;  in  speech  they  are  logically  distinguishable.  According  to 
SWEET/  the  only  division  actually  made  in  language  is  that  into  "  breath 
groups,"  corresponding  to  (3)  above. 

No  account  of  the  first  and  second  kinds  of  unity  has  been  taken  in 
these  experiments.  The  third  (and  the  second  in  so  far  as  it  coincides 
with  it)  and  the  fourth  receive  separate  treatment  elsewhere.  The  fifth 
unity  is  the  subject  of  this  section. 

The  denial 2  of  the  existence  of  the  unities  of  separate  sounds  and 
silences  is  founded  upon  a  natural  illusion.  The  unity  of  a  grain  of 
sand  is  for  unaided  discriminative  visibility  the  grain  as  a  whole  ;  for 
science  it  is  the  particles  composing  the  grain.  For  the  eye  it  is  one 
thing ;  for  the  microscope  another.  The  only  unitary  sound  groups 
in  speech  for  unaided  discriminative  audibility  may  be  the  "  breath 
groups."  When  the  reproducing  speed  of  the  phonograph  cylinder, 

1  SWEET,  Primer  of  Phonetics,  42,  Oxford  1890. 

2  SWEET,  as  before. 


24  /.   E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

however,  is  sufficiently  reduced  these  groups  are  split  up  into  separate 
syllable  groups. 

The  method  by  which  separate  sound  unities  are  perceived  is  thus 
analogous  to  those  used  in  perceiving  ultimate  sight  unities,  namely,  to 
augment  the  quantity  of  the  sensations  by  instrumentation. 

The  speed  of  the  phonograph  cylinder  was  reduced  until  a  group  of 
rapidly  recurrent  sounds,  which  had  previously  appeared  as  a  homoge- 
neity, was  split  up  into  discreet  elements  of  sound  separated  by  gaps. 
That  is,  psychologically  these  sounds  and  silences  corresponded  to  a 
series  of  auditory  sensations  alternating  with  gaps  or  silences.  It  is  the 
time  of  these  several  sensations,  as  well  as  the  time  of  the  intervals  of 
silence  between  them,  that  was  measured.  Hence  the  terms  separate 
sounds  and  silences  are  to  be  psychologically  interpreted. 

Physically,  the  sounds  represent  vibrations  of  given  lengths,  amplitudes 
and  periods.  The  gaps  or  silences  probably  correspond  in  some  cases 
to  very  weak  vibrations  (glides).  Not  infrequently,  however,  they  are 
physically  interpretable  as  absence  of  vibrations. 

Physiologically,  the  sounds  and  silences  are  interpretable  as  changes  in 
the  condition  of  the  vocal  organs. 

Owing  to  the  degree  of  skill  demanded  by  the  difficulty  of  the  work, 
the  measuring  was  deferred  to  the  later  stages  of  the  research.  The 
words  sometimes  became  so  indistinct  or  transitory  as  to  preclude  meas- 
urement ;  but  the  instances  were  few,  for  the  sounds,  in  reducing  the  rate 
of  rotation  of  the  cylinder,  tended  to  become  inarticulate  before  they  be- 
came inaudible.  A  tone  in  order  to  be  audible  must  consist  of  not  less 
than  approximately  16  vibrations  per  second.  Theoretically,  therefore, 
by  slowing  the  speed  sufficiently  the  lower  pitches  of  the  tones  of  the 
record  would  fall,  as  it  were,  below  the  threshold  of  audibility  and  be- 
come silent,  before  the  higher  pitches.  The  answer  to  this  objection  is 
that  the  degree  of  reduction  was  determined,  not  by  the  threshold  of 
audibility,  but  by  the  threshold  of  articu lability,  which  is  higher  than 
the  former.  Hence  the  sound  which  first  became  inarticulate  determined 
the  particular  limit  of  the  reduction. 

The  silences  are  indicated  by  dashes  ( — ).  The  numeral  below  the 
dash  indicates  the  duration  of  the  silence  in  units  of  contacts ;  numerals 
above  the  syllables  indicate  the  duration  of  the  syllable  to  which  they 
pertain.  The  unit  of  measurement  in  all  the  records  is  one  contact, 
the  value  of  which  is  ^,  ^-,  -fa  or  ^  of  a  second,  according  as  the 
recording  speed  was  80,  92,  100  or  120  revolutions  per  minute. 

2.   Records. 

Subject,  A.  R.  P.      (Palmer,  1901.) 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  25 

o      15    '  o       15     o  ii        o       25 
3525234         9 
My  bed — is — like — a — little — boat  ;  — 
4243  5  15 

0150         18   o       14    o    19         o      48 
5  5         86396        ii 

Nurse — puts — me  in — and  I  em — bark  ; — 
854  3  33 

22  O          23  O  19  O     29 
2                7666848 

She — girds — me — in — my — sail — ors — coat — 
?  634625  17 

21  Q  14 

And — starts — me — in — the — dark. 
?  ?        ?       ?         ? 

(Robert  L.  Stevenson.) 
Unit  of  measurement,  -fa  of  a  second. 

Explanation  and  characterization  of  record. — The  subject,  an  admirer 
of  poetry,  was  told  to  declaim  so  as  to  make  the  record  express  his 
highest  conception  of  good  poetical  declamation.  No  insight  was  given 
into  the  nature  of  the  problem  to  be  investigated.  The  stanza  was  re- 
cited from  memory. 

To  the  ear  the  record  possesses  the  qualifications  of  good  verse ;  the 
rhythm  is  markedly  smooth,  the  modulation  pleasing,  and  the  centroids 
are  emphasized  with  due  discrimination. 

Subject,  W.  C.      (Churchill,  graduate  student.) 

20       o          28        -o    9     o    17    o   23 
5449  4  6          ii          5 

Oh — yet — we — trust — that — some — how — good — 
24776  359 

019      o      1 8        o       21      040 

6         4        364         13       3      J4  , 

Will— be— the— fi— nal— goal— of— ill,4- 
33627  2       3       h 

23  o          27  o       24       o     45 

3  7,368          7f4i2r 
To — pangs-j— of — nature, — sins — of — will,-}— 

2  15  J3       '8      4          24 

23  46  22 

4  7      :    4         12     ,      3  8     r    3         *o     , 
De — fects— of — doubt,  \ — and — taints — of — blood.; 

2  75  126        6  \g      3 

(Tennyson.) 


26  J.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

Unit  of  measurement,  1/40  of  a  second. 

Explanation  and  characterization  of  record.  The  subject  was  given  a 
printed  copy  of  the  stanza,  and,  after  a  reading,  was  asked  to  read  it  into 
the  phonograph  as  poetry.  The  record  sounds  much  like  the  previous, 
save  that  the  rhythm  is  not  so  regular.  No  peculiarity  is  manifest 
in  the  relation  of  the  elements  of  the  centroid.  The  delivery  sounds 
natural ;  the  rate  was  rather  fast. 

Subject,  J.  M.  T.      (Telleen,  graduate  student.) 

7          4        X3        6         14         5         10     8 
Take — the — joys — and — bear — the — sorrows. 

4  3         J6         7  53 
3            7           ii           6          6         4 

Shut — those — eyes, — next — life — will — 

5  6  14         6         6         ? 

7  5  ii         12          7         8 

open, — stop — those — ears, — next — life — 
?  7  4          33          7        6 

5  7  68  85 

will — teach — hearing' s — office. 

5  J3  5 

(Browning.) 

Unit  of  measurement,  1/48  of  a  second. 

Explanation  and  characterization  of  record.  The  same  method  of  tak- 
ing the  record  was  used  as  in  the  W.  C.  record.  These  two  sentences 
are  selected  from  the  complete  stanza,  the  first  because  of  its  regularity 
of  structure,  the  second  because  of  its  consecutive  centroids. 

The  rhythm  sounds  less  regular  than  in  the  previous  record.  The  syl- 
lables are  distinctly  uttered  ;  the  centroids  receive  a  good  share  of  duration 
emphasis.  The  movement  is  rather  slower  than  the  subject's  ordinary 
speed  of  talking. 

Subject ',  E.  H.  T.  (Tuttle,  1901,  student  of  phonetics. ) 

Perfect  scansion. 
(#)    Without  regulative  concomitant. 

o      24         o  31         o      20         o     33 

456         12  6        10      3         ii 

And — so — no — force, — how — ev — er — great, — 
?       4       6  17          ?       3      3  ii 

O  20          O  28  O         22  O      27 

3        9         2       *3  4        M      3        8 

Can  strain — a — cord,  — how — e v — er — fine,  — 

54  IJ         ?       I..    4         10 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  2  7 

o     15     o      18  o      21        o    34 
2738       68       5        22 
In  to — a — ho — rizon — tal — line, — 
244  62  5 

O  22         O        21  O          24  O 

3  746374          ii 
That — shall — be — ab — so — lute — ly — straight. 

?  738356 

With  regulative  concomitant. 

o      23        o  25        o      23      o     28 

?     8       4        10  6        10      5       8 

And  so — no — force, — how — ev — er  great, — 
55  7          ?       7  12 

O  23      O  24        O        24          0     23 

4  ii        4    ii  4      8       3       13 
Can  strain — a  cord, — how  ev — er — fine, — 

6  7  479 

O       21       O        24        G  23       O       25 

2       5      5     I2     5       9       ir    .? 
In — to — a — ho — ri — zon — tal  line, — 

?       5     5        4      3         3  I0 

O          22        O  22          O          24        O 

That  shall — be  ab — so — lute — ly — straight. 


Unit  of  measurement,  1/48  of  a  second. 

Explanation  and  characterization  of  records.  The  subject  was  informed 
that  the  distinctive  purpose  of  the  experiment  was  to  determine  how  ac- 
curately the  intervals  between  the  emphatic  syllables  could  be  coordinated. 
He  was  told  to  scan  the  selection  with  the  utmost  regularity,  first,  without 
and,  second,  with  the  aid  of  the  finger  beating  time  upon  the  table.  The 
delivery  was  rather  slow.  A  second  purpose  was  to  determine  the  rela- 
tion which  long  and  short  syllables  would  assume.  Of  the  latter  purpose, 
no  intimations  were  given. 

To  the  ear,  the  first  specimen  sounds  like  an  excellent  example  of  rou- 
tine scansion ;  the  second  sounds  still  more  artificial  and  mechanical. 

The  two  records  differ  not  so  much  in  the  relation  of  the  component 
syllables  and  silences  as  in  the  regularity  of  the  intervals ;  hence  only  the 
measurements  of  the  syllables  and  silences  of  the  former,  which  is  free 
from  mechanical  regulation,  are  given  in  the  table  of  results. 


28  /.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

Subject,  W.  L.  P.      (Phelps,  Prof.  English  Literature.) 

o          o  o 

3         7         10  9          8      4       12 

But — one — mor — ning — the — min — i — ster, — 

3  4          ?  6         ?  4  n 

c  o  o          o 

6378  79 

in — the — chapel, — gave — out — 

5  ?  34          3        5 

GO  O  O 

6  21  10         7         8         3         ? 
the — hymn — num — her — nine — ty — nine 

3  35          ?         5  6       2 

Unit  of  measurement,  1/48  of  a  second. 

Explanation  and  characterization  of  record.  The  sentence  is  taken 
from  the  body  of  a  prose  record.  The  phrase  rhythm  is  fairly-well  pre- 
served ;  the  accents  are  normal,  only  one  extra-long  centroid  occurring 
in  the  sentence.  The  rendition  is  distinct  and  emphatic. 

(Swedish  poetry. ) 
Subject ',  O.  S.      (Sandquist,  age  13.) 

16  22  19  25 

o  o  o  o 

5          10  4      8        3      ii        5          5 
Ack, — Herre — Jes — us — hor — min — rost, — 

4  ?        4       5         3          5  9 

o       17        o        180       17          032 
594837?  9 

Gor — dig — ett — tern — pel — i — mitt — brost, — 
332422  4  17 

\ 

o       18        0180         18       o    19 
376         959         5       I0 
U — ti — mitt — hjar — ta — blif — och — bo, — 
21  3          2       2         ?         3         9 

Ol8o          22     O  15     O     42 

Sa  har  jag  trost  och  evig  ro. 

Unit  of  measurement,  1/32  of  a  second. 

Explanation  and  characterization  of  the  record.  The  subject  was 
chosen  from  a  number  of  speakers  who  appeared  on  a  children's  pro- 
gram, because  of  the  monotone  fashion  of  speaking.  The  verses  were 
recited  from  memory.  They  are  end-stopped,  with  three  sectional  punc- 


.Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  29 

tuation  marks.  The  sounds  and  silences  could  not  be  accurately  measured 
in  the  last  line.  There  was  a  general  tendency  to  let  the  voice  fall  in 
pitch  and  weaken  toward  the  close. 

To  the  ear  the  stanza  has  a  rhythmic  swing  characteristic  of  the  jog- 
trot method  of  declaiming  of  many  children.  The  degree  of  emphasis  is 
moderate,  considered  especially  duration-wise. 

{Persian  poetry. ) 
Subject,  K.  H.  K.      (Kazanjian,  graduate  student,  philosophy.) 

©3         3°          ©2          23        •      15     A      69 
1156        7         9        57      14     9      78 
Ahi  min — el — askh — i — ve — ha — la — ti — hi — 
55  6    ?       4       i       6      ?     25 

0      16     o          31  02   27  £  74 

7       3     I0      4       7      712      65      5 
Eh — rak — i — kal — bi — be — hera — re — ti — hi — 
4         25        46?  742     32 

®3  31  A2         22    O,  21    |3  71 

ii        8       6      8       10      5     7      7         ii  6        9 

Mo — naz — er — el — ayn — e — i — le — ghayri — kum — 
443424  5  5         22 

|3  32  02  29  O    20  O 

6          6       4      711      7       5     14       845 
Euk — sum — i — bil — la — hi — ve — I — yatihi. 
7          34632  ? 

Unit  of  measurement,  4^  of  a  second. 

Explanation  and  characterization  of  record.  The  primary  object  in 
studying  the  record  was  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  accent  in  Per- 
sian poetry  is  entirely  lacking,  as  alleged,  or,  if  present,  what  is  its 
essence  ;  and  the  character  of  the  rhythm.  The  reciter,  a  native  of  Persia, 
was  told  to  exercise  care  lest  the  rendition  might  be  affected  by  our  occi- 
dental mode  of  utterance.  The  verses  were  recited  from  memory. 

The  movement  is  fairly  rhythmical ;  the  melody  strikes  the  ear  as 
weird  and  unfamiliar.  On  careful  listening  the  centroids  were  evident  to 
the  ear. 

3.  Sounds. — a.  Historical  summary. — Two  chief  views  have  been  ad- 
vanced as  to  the  temporal  values  of  emphatic  and  unemphatic  syllables. 
According  to  the  one,  the  relation  sustained  is  that  of  equality.  There 
is  no  necessary  bond  between  emphasis  and  duration.  As  a  matter  of 


30  /.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

contingency  or  as  dependent  upon  the  difficulty  of  the  physiological  proc- 
ess of  articulation,  either  syllable  may  arrogate  to  itself  supremacy  of 
time  value. 

The  second  theory,  which  has  been  held  in  three  forms,  posits  a  rela- 
tion of  long  and  short  between  the  emphatic  and  unemphatic  syllables. 
According  to  the  first  form  the  relation  is  indefinite  and  variable.  In 
this  form  the  theory  is  held  by  GuRNEY,1  GOOLD,  BROWN,  LoxzE,1  BOL- 
TON  2  and  a  host  of  others.  For  the  most  part,  the  relation,  while  fairly 
constant,  is  held  to  be  inexact.  LANIER  3  may  be  taken  as  a  representa- 
tive of  the  second  form,  which  maintains  that  the  syllables  of  speech 
sustain  a  proportion  of  aliquot  parts  to  one  another.  The  proportion  is 
always  a  simple  one,  such  as  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc.,  and  never  fractional. 
According  to  the  third  form,4  the  ratio  sustained  is  precisely  as  1:2.  The 
theory  is  generally  applied  to  classic  verse,  which  theoretically  admits 
but  two  time  values,  long  and  short,  as  obtaining  among  its  sounds.5 

b.  The  measurement  of  emphatic  and  unemphatic  syllables. — The  rel- 
ative amount  of  time-occupancy  of  weak  and  strong  syllables  is  shown 
in  Tables  V.  and  VI. 

TABLE  V. 

Duration  of  emphatic  syllables. 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

I 
a 

n 

A.  R.  P. 

2.17 

o.  16 

0.03 

0.18 

13 

W.  C. 

3-50 

0.20 

0.05 

0.25 

17 

J.  M.  T. 

3-o8 

0.17 

0.04 

0.23 

18 

E.  H.  T. 

3-27 

O.2O 

0.05 

0.25 

16 

W.  L.  P. 

2.  2O 

0.20 

0.05 

0.25 

ii 

0.  S. 

3.06 

0.25 

0.03 

0.12 

12 

K.  H.  K. 

2-95 

0.18 

0.03 

o.i  6 

16 

Av.  2.89  0.19  0.04  0.20  14.7 

Unit  of  measurement,   Is.     d,  total  duration;    a,  average   duration;  /,  immediate 
probable  error ;   — ,  relative  immediate  probable  error  ;  «,  number. 


1  GURNEY,  The  Power  of  Sound,  443,  London  1880. 
2BOLTON,  Rhythm,  Am.  Jour.  Psych.,  1893  VI  34. 

3  LANIER,  The  Science  of  English  Verse,  73,  New  York  1880. 

4  POE,  The  Rationale  of  Verse,  Works,  VI  60,   Chicago  1895.     Elsewhere  he  main- 
tains a  contradictory  position,  52. 

5  LANIER,  The  Science  of  English  Verse,  113  New  York,  1880. 
ELLIS,  The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  8-20,  London  1874. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  3 1 

TABLE  VI. 
Duration  of  unemphatic  syllables. 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

n 

A.  R.  P. 

i  15 

O.IO 

0.03 

0.30 

II 

W.  C. 

i-52 

o.  10 

0.03 

0.30 

15 

J.  M.  T. 

o-93 

O.I  I 

O.O2 

0.18 

8 

E.  H.  T. 

1.27 

0.08 

0.02 

0.25 

16 

W.  L.  P. 

1-31 

o  13 

O.O4 

0.30 

10 

0.  S. 

1.56 

O.  12 

O.O2 

0.16 

12 

K.  H.  K. 

3-85 

O.I3 

O.O2 

0.15 

28 

Av. 

i765 

0.  II 

0.025 

0.23 

15-7 

t  of  measurement 

,  IS; 

d,  total  duration  ; 

a,  average 

duration  ;  p, 

immediate 

able    error;       ,  relative  immediate  probable  error 


(a)  Observations  and  conclusions. — The  tables  of  measurements  point 
towards  the  following  conclusions. 

1.  The  absolute  duration  of  any  syllable  is  variable.     The  records  re- 
veal that  the  length  of  a  given  long  or  short  syllable  is  never  absolutely 
fixed :   the  precise  length  is  different  for  every  time  it  is  spoken. 

2.  The  average  emphatic  syllable  is  invariably  longer  than  the  average 
unemphatic  syllable.     The  average  of  the  former  for  all  the  records  occu- 
pies 0.08  sec.  more  time  than  the  average  of  the  latter.     The  ratio  is  as 
1.7  :  i  j  hence  the  average  long  syllable  is  almost  one  and  three-fourths 
times  as  long  as  the  average  short  syllable. 

3.  The  ratio  sustained  between  the  average  unemphatic  and  emphatic 
syllable  varies  with  different  subjects.     The  following  are  the  ratios  for 
each  of  the  records,  given  in  the  order  of  the  tables :    i  :  i .  6  ;    1:2; 
1:1.5;   I  '•  2-S  ')   I:I-5j    1:2. 08  and   i  :  1.38.      With  the  exception  of 
one  record,  all  the  average  emphatic  syllables  are  at  least  half  again  as 
long  as  the  average  unemphatic.     The  exception  is  the  Persian  ;  probably 
the  element  of  duration  is  a  property  less  prominent  in  the  centroids  of 
Persian  poetry. 

The  highest  ratio  is  furnished  by  the  routine  scansion  record.  Here 
the  centroid  syllable  is  two  and  a  half  times  longer  than  the  non-centroidal 
syllable.  Scanned  poetry  thus  appears  to  furnish  the  instance  where  the 
difference  between  the  length  of  emphatic  and  unemphatic  syllables  is  at 
its  greatest.  This  suggests  a  conclusion  with  reference  to  the  method  in 
which  classical  Roman  and  Greek  poetry  was  scanned. 

The  ratio  in  the  prose  record  (W.  L.  P.)  is  slightly  less  than  the  aver- 
age. Whether  this  is  a  valid  distinction,  as  affecting  prose  and  poetry, 
cannot,  however,  be  maintained  on  the  basis  of  this  one  record. 


32  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

4.  The  ratios   existing  between    individual   emphatic    or    unemphatic 
syllables  of  the  same  or  of  different  records,  are  neither  invariable,  nor  are 
they  ratios  of  simple  proportion.1     The  possible  relations,  as  may  be  seen 
by  a  glance  at  the  records,  and  by  an  examination  of  the/  column  (the 
column  of  irregularity)  are  practically  unlimited.      Not  infrequently  the 
ratio  is  reversed,   so  that  sporadic  unemphatic  syllables  may  be   longer 
than  the  average  of  the  emphatic  syllables. 

These  facts  incontestably  refute  the  theory  of  "simple  proportion." 
As  an  illustration,  notice  the  following  time  relations  in  the  consecutive 
syllables  of  the  first  line  of  the  specimen  of  routine  scansion,  which, 
rhythmically  considered,  furnishes  a  type  of  poetry  at  its  best :  0.083, 
0.104,  0.125,  0.250,  0.250,  0.208,  0.062  and  0.229. 

5.  The   long   and   short  syllables  are  about  equal  in  regularity.      As 
respects   the   comparative  amount  of  absolute   irregularity,    the  average 
long  syllable  is  one  and  six-tenths  times  more  irregular  than   the   short. 
The  average  amount  of  irregularity  for  each  long  syllable  is  -^-^ ;   for 
each   short   syllable,  -%\-$.      In  proportion    to    the   length   of  the   span, 
however,  the  short  syllable  exceeds  the  long  in  the  amount  of  irregularity 
by  a  trifle,  namely,  -%\-§*. 

6.  The  ratio  between  the  number  of  emphatic  and  unemphatic  sylla- 
bles (exclusive  of  the  Persian  record)  is  as  1.2  :  i,  which  is  smaller  than 
the  ratio  between  the  total  duration  of  the  same.      In  none  of  the  records 
are  there  less  emphatic  than  unemphatic  syllables,  except  in  the  Persian, 
where  the  numerical  ratio  is  i  :  1.75,  and  the  duration  ratio  (the  relative 
time-occupancy  of  all  the  emphatic  and  unemphatic  syllables)  as  i .  33  :    i . 
The  unemphatic  syllables  occur,  as  might   be   expected   from   the   non- 
accentual  theory  of  Persian  poetry,  one  and  three -fourths  times  as  often 
as  the  emphatic.      In  English,  however,  the  converse  often  occurs,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  J.  M.  T.  record.      On  the  whole,  the  ratios  between  the 
duration  and  the  number  of  long  and  short  syllables  do  not  coincide. 
The  ratio  between  the  latter  may  be  equal ;   the  ratio  between  the  former 
is  never  that  of  equality  for  the  total  average  duration  of  any  record. 

(<£)  Bearing  on  the  quantitative  theory. — The  most  general  deduction 
to  be  made  from  this  series  of  measurements  is  the  disparity  in  the  time- 
span  of  so-called  short  and  long  syllables.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
temporal  distinction  is  true  to  fact. 

All  speech  is  quantitative ;  and  the  distinction,  popularly  and  con- 
fidently posited,  between  quantitative  and  non -quantitative  verse,  is 
grounded  upon  fallacious  assumptions.  The  question  of  the  quantitative 
character  of  poetry  or  prose,  is  closed.  The  only  crux  of  contention  that 

1  Cf.  LANIER,  The  Science  of  English  Verse,  73,  New  York  1880. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  33 

remains  affects  the  character  of  the  laws  governing  the  temporal  relation 
of  the  components  of  language.  The  question  contains  several  phases. 

The  first  determination  has  settled  the  fact  that  speech  as  a  phenomenal 
occurrence  is  conditioned  on  the  time-intuition  of  sensibility. 

The  second  question  has  also  been  settled,  namely  that  the  strong 
syllable  is  temporally  longer  than  the  weak. 

The  third  question  is  partly  closed.  It  has  been  shown  that  for  Eng- 
lish, Swedish  and  Persian  the  ratio  between  the  individual  long  and  weak 
syllables  is  never  constant.  The  general  character  of  the  ratio  was,  for 
artistically  free  declamation  of  English  poetry,  in  the  proportion  of  i  :  i.  7  ; 
i  :  1.38  for  Persian  poetry  ;  i  :  2.08  for  Swedish  poetry  ;  i  :  1.5  for  Eng- 
lish prose;  and  i  :  2.5  for  mechanical  scansion. 

It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  ratio  in  classical  verse  is  a  fixed 
one,  in  the  proportion  of  i  to  2.  Supposing  the  theory  true,  what  justi- 
fication is  there  for  setting  classical  verse  apart  as  sui  generis  ? 

Evidently  the  distinction  between  so-called  quantitative  and  non-quanti- 
tative poetry  cannot  be  validated  on  the  mere  ground  of  proportionality, 
for  our  records  have  furnished  examples  of  English  and  Swedish  poetry  in 
which  the  proportion  is,  respectively,  as  i  :  2,  and  as  i  :  2.08  ;  hence,  if 
an  examination  of  modern  verse  furnishes  no  support  for  the  theory,  on 
the  basis  of  the  amount  of  proportion  (since  it  duplicates  what  the  theory 
assumes  as  unique),  the  remaining  alternative  is  to  postulate  a  strict 
equality  between  each  and  every  strong  syllable  and  each  and  every  weak 
syllable ;  that  is  to  say,  to  suppose  that  the  Roman  and  Greek  ear  was 
capable  of  exactly  coordinating  every  individual  emphatic  and  unemphatic 
syllable  so  that,  relative  to  one  another,  they  should  sustain  the  propor- 
tion of  i  :  2,  and,  regarded  apart  by  themselves,  a  proportion  invariably 
as  2  :  2  in  the  former,  and  i  :  i  in  the  latter  case.  That  such  a  proportion 
cannot  be  effected  by  the  modern  ear  is  indisputable.  Even  in  the  case  of 
the  strictest  metronome  scansion,  the  average  inequality  is  0.02"  for  every 
weak,  and  0.05'  for  every  strong  syllable.  When  the  modern  ear  is  thus 
incapable  of  preserving  the  strict  temporal  equality  of  syllables,  even  in 
mechanical  scansion,  the  quantitative  theory  as  limited  to  classical  poetry 
may,  in  regard  both  to  extent  and  invariability  of  proportion,  be  con- 
sidered exploded. 

A  third  supposition  is  still  possible,  namely,  that  recited  Greek  and 
Latin  verse,  not  improbably,  was  unique  in  the  musical  character  of  the 
utterance.1  According  to  SYMONDS,*  the  poetry  probably  was  sung  or 


1  ELLIS,  The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  20,  London  1874. 

2  SYMONDS,  Sketches  and  Studies  in  Southern  Europe,  II  326,  New  York  1880. 


34  /•  E.  Wallace  Walhn, 

chanted ;  hence  the  tempo  would  have  been  an  adagio,  supposing  ours  to 
be  allegro.  This  would  naturally  intensify  the  appreciation  of  the  dis- 
parity in  the  durations  of  the  two  syllables,  since  more  time  would  be 
afforded  to  the  ear  to  listen  to  each  syllable,  and  the  quantity  of  sensation 
would  be  augmented.  Hence  the  illusion  would  arise  that  the  difference 
between  classic  and  modern  scansion  of  poetry  lay  in  the  relation  of  the 
weak  and  strong  syllables,  in  respect  of  exact  regularity  and  proportion, 
instead  of  in  the  relatively  greater  amount  of  time  occupied  by  the  syllables 
in  classical  scansion  as  compared  with  the  non-classical,  or  reading,  scan- 
sion of  modern  poetry. 

The  psychological  explanation  here  advanced  of  the  distinction  between 
quantitative  and  non-quantitative  poetry,  as  arising  from  a  natural  audi- 
tory illusion,  seems  quite  compatible  with  the  general  psychological  theory 
of  illusions  occurring  in  normal  life. 

(V)  Theoretical. — How  can  we  best  account  for  the  differences  of  du- 
ration existing  between  syllables  ? 

The  most  prevalent  theory  may  be  called  the  physiological  theory, 
which  resolves  the  question  into  facility  or  difficulty  of  enunciation — into 
"  lingual  evolution."  Long  syllables  are  those  that  are  encumbered-  by 
consonants,1  or  those  that  contain  long  vowels2;  and  short  syllables  are 
those  unencumbered  by  consonants,  or  those  containing  short  vowels. 
Hence  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no  quantity 3  in  English. 

This  theory  undoubtedly  explains  a  large  percentage  of  cases.  Some 
syllables,  by  reason  of  the  vowels  and  consonants  composing  them,  re- 
quire a  labored  adjustment  of  the  vocal  apparatus,  and  hence  a  retarded 
utterance. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  was  proved  by  the  experiments  of  KRAL  and 
MARES/  the  addition  of  consonants  does  not  proportionately  or  regularly 
lengthen  the  syllable  ;  it  often  shortens  it.  Moreover,  the  theory  applies 
equally  well  to  both  weak  and  strong  syllables,  and  is  hopelessly  inade- 
quate to  explain  the  large  array  of  instances  where  syllables  are  normally  or 
regularly  long,  although  easy  of  articulation.  It  fails  to  render  a  satis- 
factory account  of  the  fact  that  the  average  emphatic  syllable  is  invariably 
longer  than  the  unemphatic.  Only  the  psychological  theory  can  satisfac- 
torily account  for  this  circumstance. 


1  FOE,  The  Rationale  of  Verse.  Works,  VI  59,  Chicago  1895. 

2  GUEST,  A  History  of  English  Rhythms,  103,  London  1882. 

3  GUEST,  as  before,  v. 

*KRAL  A  MARES,    Trvdnihlasek  a  slabik  die  objektivne  miry,  Listy  Filologicke,  1893 
IV  17. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  35 

According  to  GURNEY  1  the  long  syllable  occupies  more  time  than  the 
short,  because  the  amount  of  effort  required  for  its  pronunciation  is  greater 
than  that  required  for  the  short  syllable.  Another  theory,  partly  physio- 
logical, partly  psychological,  attributes  the  prolongation  to  the  fact  that 
when  a  special  intensification  is  made  it  is  accompanied  by  a  retardation 
of  the  action  of  the  voice  apparatus.  It  requires  a  longer  period  to  over- 
come the  contraction  ;  hence  the  sound  is  prolonged.  Against  this  sup- 
position it  may  be  urged  that  the  time  required  to  effect  the  contraction 
is  proportionately  shorter  ;  hence  a  neutrality  of  effect. 

The  most  fruitful  theory,  we  believe,  is  the  centroid  theory  advanced 
above.  The  centroid  is  a  mental  center  of  force,  of  which  duration  is  an. 
inseparable  element.  It  is  constituted  a  centroid  by  reason  of  the  promi- 
nence, proportionate  or  unproportionate,  which  is  given  by  the  speaker  to- 
fts properties.  It  is  as  natural  to  intensify  the  duration  factor,  as  the  pitch 
and  loudness  factors. 

4.  Silences. — a.  Explanation.  By  silences  is  here  meant  those  gaps 
which  in  listening  to  a  slowly  revolving  phonograph  cylinder,  are  per- 
ceived to  exist  between  the  successive  syllables  of  phrase  groups.  The 
gaps  between  phrase  groups,  or  expiration  intervals,  may  be  called,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  former,  vacant  intervals  or  pauses.  It  is  only  the 
former  with  which  we  are  now  concerned. 

The  popular  idea,  says  SWEET, 2  that  we  make  a  gap  between  every  syl- 
lable is  erroneous ;  the  only  phonetic  divisions  justifiable  in  speech  are 
"  those  into  sounds  and  syllables  and  intervening  glides."  It  is  patent, 
however,  that  the  speech  organs  must  consume  a  fraction  of  time  in  the 
transition  from  one  sound  to  another,  which  will  be  long  or  short  accord- 
ing to  the  inherent  difficulty  of  the  transition,  and  the  amount  of  energy  ex- 
pended. A  series  of  such  transitions  denotes,  physiologically,  a  number 
of  points  at  which  the  energy  utilized  by  the  organs  of  speech  ( diaphragm, 
lungs,  larynx)  may  be  considered  to  be  at  its  lowest  ebb  ;  and,  physically,, 
points  at  which  the  vibrations  of  the  air  are  diminished  in  amplitude  and 
frequency.  When  the  diminution  reaches  a  certain  point  the  transitions, 
become,  psychologically,  gaps  or  silences.  The  perception  of  these,  how- 
ever, is  a  distinct  problem.  According  as  the  mind  is  intensely  absorbed 
in  the  thought  element  of  the  utterance,  the  gaps  fail  to  rise  above  the 
threshold  of  consciousness,  and  hence  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  an  ex- 
piration group  of  syllables  is  psychologically  a  continuum.  The  illusion 
is  exposed  when  attention  is  directed  to  the  purely  structural  aspect  of 

1  GURNEY,  The  Power  of  Sound,  429,  London  1880. 

2  SWEET,  Primer  of  Phonetics,  42,  Oxford  1890. 


36  /.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

speech.  The  rapidity  of  ordinary  utterance  is  so  great  as  to  render  the 
elements  of  language  too  subtle  for  the  processes  of  work-a-day  analysis, 
and  recourse  must  be  taken  to  some  means  of  aiding  the  power  of  mental 
analysis,  namely,  to  magnifying  the  phenomena;  this  can  be  done  by 
listening  to  a  phonograph  record,  the  rate  of  the  rotation  of  the  cylinder 
of  which  has  been  sufficiently  reduced. 

In  a  few  instances  it  was  impossible,  in  measuring,  to  detect  any  gaps 
between  the  syllables :  they  seemed  to  coalesce.  In  yet  other  instances, 
the  gaps  could  be  perceived,  but  were  so  indistinct  as  to  make  it  hazard- 
ous to  measure  them.  These  instances  are  indicated  in  the  records  by  a  ? 

In  the  table  which  follows  a  comparison  is  made  between  ante-,  inter- 
and  post-centroid  silences.  Only  the  average  duration  is  given. 

TABLE  VII. 

Duration  of  silences. 

Subject.  .(.  _|_ 

A.  R.  P.  0.103  0.200                            0.103 

W.  C.  0.108  o.ioo                            0.136 

J.  M.  T.  0.095  0-139                            0.104 

E.  H.  T.  0.080  0.104 

W.  L.  P.  0.079  0.072                            o.in 

O.  S.  0.099  0.084 

K.  H.  K.  0.086  0.078 

Av.  0.092  0.127  o.  102 

Unit  of  measurement,  Is. 

— ,  silence  preceding  centroid. 
•|- ,  silence  between  centroids. 
-)-,  silence  following  centroid. 

b.  Deductions. — Owing  to  the  limited  number  of  silences  upon  which 
the  determinations  are  based,  the  following  are  offered  as  tentative  con- 
clusions. Later  researches  may  verify  or  modify  them. 

i.  The  silences  that  occur  between  centroids  rank  highest  in  the  order 
of  length. 

It  has  been  denied  by  GUEST  1  and  affirmed  by  SWEET  and  MAYOR, 2 
that  two  centroids  can  follow  in  an  immediate  sequence.  The  silence 
occurring  between  the  contiguous  centroids  has  been  constituted  the  indis- 
pensable condition  of  such  a  series  by  some  writers.  GUEST,  e.  g., 
affirms  (p.  86)  that  the  condition  of  the  immediate  sequence  of  two 
accented  monosyllables,  is  the  intervention  of  a  "  pause. ' '  When  the 
words  are  in  groups,  the  law  affects  only  the  group. 

1  GUEST,  A  History  of  English  Rhythms,  551,  London  1882. 

2  MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  29  ff.,  London  1886. 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  <?/"  speech.  37 

The  inter-centroid  silence  has  been  conceived  in  the  nature  of  a  pause. 
This  is  untenable.  These  silences  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  which 
precede  or  follow  centroids.  The  difference  in  duration  between  the 
averages  is  almost  negligible  —  0.02  5s. 

2.  The  post-centroid  occupies  more  time  than  the  ante-centroid  silence. 
The  converse  has  been  affirmed  to  be  true  by  writers  in  phonetics. 

3.  The  average  duration  of  the  silences  of  speech  is  about  o.  107". 

5.  Comparison  of  the  duration  of  sounds  and  silences.  (#)  Observa- 
tions. —  The  aggregate  duration  of  all  the  sounds  is  equal  to  31.  82s;  of 
all  the  silences,  13.  35s.  The  ratio  of  quantity  of  silence  to  quantity 
of  sound  is  thus  in  the  proportion  of  1:2.38. 

This  fact  may  contain  material  of  importance  of  a  psychological  and 
physiological  nature.  It  has  been  affirmed  that  the  heart,  for  example,  is 
alternately  working  and  resting,  resting  between,  working  during,  the 
pulsations.  Similarly  the  alternation  of  sounds  and  silences  suggest  a 
constant  alternation  of  work  and  rest  on  the  part  of  the  larynx. 

There  is  this  difference  between  the  two  cases.  The  period  of  work  in 
cardiac  action  is  about  equal  to,  or  slightly  shorter  than,  the  period  of 
rest.  In  the  action  of  the  vocal  cords,  the  period  of  work  is  nearly  two 
and  a  half  times  longer  than  the  period  of  rest.  Obviously,  this  explains 
why  the  former  mechanism  is  able  to  continue  at  work  incessantly,  while 
the  latter  requires  long  periods  of  rest  for  recuperating  its  energy.  These 
periods  are  supplied  partly  by  pauses,  and  partly  by  limiting  the  activity 
to  a  certain  length  of  time,  varying  with  each  individual. 

The  above  ratio  is  exclusive  of  pauses.  In  the  later  comparison  of  the 
various  intervals  of  speech,  the  duration  of  the  expiration  intervals  will 
be  compared  with  the  duration  of  the  pause  intervals. 

None  of  the  general  averages  of  the  silences  is  equal  to  the  average 
duration  of  the  centroid  syllables.  The  average  inter-centroid  silence, 
however,  is  a  trifle  longer  than  the  average  short  syllable. 

(<£)  Conclusions  —  i.  The  quantity  of  the  sounds  of  expiration  inter- 
vals of  speech  is  nearly  2^  times  greater  than  the  quantity  of  the  silences. 

2.  The  average  emphatic  and  unemphatic  syllables  of  speech  are  both 
uniformly  longer  than  the  average  silences. 

V.     THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    INTERVALS    IN    SPEECH. 

A.  Explanatory. 

No  little  confusion  has  obtained  in  the  meaning  ascribed  to  the  term 
meter.  Some  writers  employ  the  term  to  signify  exactly  regulated  rhythm  ;] 

1  ABBOTT  AND  SEELEY,  English  Lessons  for  English  People,  146,  Boston  1880. 


3  8  J.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

others,  the  "foot,"1  "  measure,"2  or  "bar";  and  others,3  the  scheme 
whereby  a  fixed  number  of  stresses  at  fixed  points  is  marked  out  for  the 
verse,  whence  we  derive  the  terms  dimeter,  trimeter,  tetrameter,  penta- 
meter and  hexameter.  According  to  POE,*  meter  has  to  do  with  the  num- 
ber of  feet,  rhythm  with  the  character  of  feet  (the  arrangement  of  sylla- 
bles). Finally,  meter  has  been  made  synonymous  with  the  line5  or  verse 
group,  whence  our  "long"  and  "short"  meter.  This  is  the  only  kind 
of  meter,  or  rhythm,  recognized  by  Japanese  and  Persian  prosody,  the 
poetry  of  both  of  these  languages  having,  theoretically,  no  accent. 

GUEST  6  provides,  perhaps,  the  most  comprehensive  definition  of  the 
term.  He  makes  it  inclusive  of  three  factors,  according  to  the  following 
scheme  : 

f  i. Elements — syllables,  verses,  staves. 

Meter  \  2.  Accidents — quantity,  accent,  modification  of  sound. 
[  3.  Law  of  succession. 

Into  a  discussion  of  the  propriety  of  these  several  views  it  is  not  our 
present  purpose  to  enter.  In  so  far  as  meter  is  synonymous  with  the  verse 
and  foot  intervals,  the  two  orders  of  meter  will  receive  due  consideration 
in  the  appropriate  place. 

The  word  verse  is  subject  to  a  similar  ambiguity.  In  prosody  it  is  em- 
ployed in  three  different  senses  :  ( i )  A  number  of  feet,  or  succession  of 
words,  constituting  a  metrical  line.  (2)  A  group  of  lines  thus  com- 
posed. (3)  Metrical  composition,  as  distinguished  from  prose. 

The  words  foot,  bar  and  measure  are  the  popular  words  used  to  signify 
the  intervals  bounded  by  accented  syllables. 

The  foot,  in  poetry,  is  generally  defined  as  a  succession  of  long  and 
short  or  accented  and  unaccented  syllables ;  the  measure,  as  meter,  or  a 
rhythmical  period  ;  and  the  bar  is  a  variant  of  the  two.  Th^  first  is  ex- 
clusively applied  to  poetry ;  the  second  and  third  are  also  applied  to 
music.  In  poetry  they  are  generally  employed  as  synonymous  terms. 

To  designate  the  intervals  of  vacancy  in  speech  the  terms  pause,  rest, 
stop  and  silence  are  indifferently  employed.  The  term  rest  finds  favor  in 
musical  terminology ;  the  word  stop  is  synonymous  sometimes  with  the 
punctuation  mark  and  sometimes  with  the  making  of  a  change  in  pitch. 

1  MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  5  ff.,  London  1886. 

2  ARNOLD,  A  Manual  of  English  Literature,  appendix,   Boston  1891. 
3GuRNEY,  The  Power  of  Sound,  425,  Lond.  1880 ;  CORSON,  ARNOLD,  as  before. 
4  POE,  The  Rationale  of  Verse,  Works,  VI  56,  Chicago  1895. 

SLANIER,  The  Science  of  English  Verse,  234,  New  York  1880. 
6  GUEST,  A  History  of  English  Rhythms,  London  1882. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  39 

The  sound  sequence  enclosed  within  two  pauses  may  perhaps  be  termed 
a  phrase. 

What  is  the  common  characteristic  of  these  various  groups  of  facts — the 
verse,  foot,  pause  and  phrase  sequences  ?  Obviously,  they  all  agree  as  par- 
taking of  the  same  temporal  and  spatial  characteristics.  They  are  phe- 
nomena of  duration.  The  term  interval  may  be  used  as  a  general  word  to 
denote  any  of  these  sequences.  A  verse  interval  is  thus  a  sequence  con- 
sisting of  a  line  of  poetry. 

An  interval  extends  between  the  opening  and  closing  point  of  a  given 
sequence.  Spatially,  it  is  the  distance  between  the  first  printed  object  and 
the  last  printed  object  of  the  sequence.  To  illustrate  :  a  verse  interval  is 
the  distance  upon  the  printed  page  from  the  first  syllable  to,  and  inclu- 
sive of,  the  last  syllable  of  the  line.  Temporally,  it  is  the  time  which  is 
consumed  in  speech  in  passing  from  the  first  to  the  last  sound  of  the 
sequence. 

In  the  collection  of  records  to  follow,  the  explanation  of  the  centroid 
symbols  is  the  same  as  on  p.  15. 

The  words  enclosed  in  (  )  are  inaudible  on  the  phonograph  record ; 
those  in  [  ]  were  supplied  by  the  subject. 

The  duration  of  the  interval  between  any  two  centroids  is  indicated  by 
the  numeral  which  is  placed  midway  between  them.  The  measurements 
of  the  line  and  expiration  groups  are  given  only  in  the  tables.  Pauses 
marked  ?  are  too  indefinite  for  accurate  measurement. 

In  the  tables,  "The  immediate  probable  error"  p  is  determined  ac- 
cording to  the  formula  : 

•  — 


k2  +  v*  +  - 
\  n —  i 


where  vlt  z>9,  •••,  z/n  represent  the  differences  that  exist  between  each 
measurement  and  the  average  of  all  the  measurements.  The  immediate 
probable  error  furnishes  an  expression  for  the  amount  of  irregularity  or 
inequality  existing  between  the  components  of  a  series  of  measurements 
and  the  average  of  the  series. 

The   ' '  relative  immediate  probable   error' '   —  furnishes  an    expression 

of  the  immediate  probable  error  as  a  fraction  of  the  average.  It  will  be 
larger  or  smaller  than  the  former  according  as  the  average  is  smaller  or 
larger  than  the  unit  of  measurement.  The  degree  of  regularity  is  ex- 
pressed by  this  quantity. 

Both  the  p  and  —  are  measures  of  irregularity  on  the  part  of  the  subject. 
They  are  mental  quantities.      The  inaccuracy  of  the  average  may  be  indi- 


40  /.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

cated  by  dividing/  by  \/n.  This  gives  the  "  final  probable  error."  It 
gives  the  limits  within  which  the  average  of  a  similar  set  of  measurements 
may  be  expected  to  vary  with  a  probability  of  one-half. 

The  duration  of  the  average  interval  may  be  represented  to  the  im- 
magination  as  a  line  of  a  definite  length,  e.  g. =  i".  Every  com- 
ponent of  the  given  series  of  intervals  will  be  either  exactly  equal  to 
this  line  in  length,  /.  e.  i8,  or  will  deviate  from  it  in  one  of  two  di- 
rections— (a)  plus  (e.  g.  i. 5os)  or  (b)  minus  (<?.  g.  0.50"). 

The  e  column  gives  for  each  record  the  lengths  of  the  intervals  which 
deviate  the  farthest  from  the  average.  Thus  we  get  two  kinds  of  ex- 
tremes, —  and  -f .  The  former  represents  the  shortest  component  of  the 
series,  the  latter  the  longest. 

The  c  column  gives  the  character  of  the  difference  of  the  greater  of  the 
two  extremes  from  the  average.  To  illustrate  graphically  : 


Av.  — 

=  0.50" 

The  middle  line  is  the  length  of  the  average  ;  the  line  above  is  the 
longest,  and  the  line  below  the  shortest,  single  interval  in  the  series.  The 
differences  between  the  average  and  the  -j-  line  is  i8 ;  the  difference  be- 
tween the  average  and  the  —  line  is  0.50".  Hence  the  character  of  the 
greater  extreme  is  +. 

The  cipher  indicates  that  the  extremes  are  equal. 

The  following  records  are  explained  and  characterized  upon  the  basis  of 
the  impression  made  upon  the  ear.  They  are  classified,  according  to  the 
style  of  delivery,  into  four  types  of  poetical  scansion. 

The  rhythmically  free  declamation  of  poetry,  or  reading  scansion,  cor- 
responds to  the  rhythmically  free  reading  of  prose.  The  one  is  the 
basal  type  of  poetical  speech  ;  the  other,  of  prose  speech.  The  former 
admits  of  several  distinct  varieties,  the  latter  of  two  or  three  less  distinct 
varieties. 

B.  Records. 
First  specimen,  J.  W.  R.      (James  Whitcomb  Riley,  poet,  lecturer.) 

o     41      1*2  29   o       30 
They  ain't  no  style  about  'em, — 

9 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  41 

3i        o   30    ©2     45      §3     67 
And  they're  sort  o'pale  and  faded  ; — 

45 
o    31       §a    42     o        25     o       28 

11  10 

Yit  the  doorway  here,  without  'em, — 

10 

O  29          §3  87  Q2    22 

Would  be  lonesomer, — and  shaded 


0      J9        °       32         22    30       .  22 

With  a  good'eal  blacker  shadder 

23       •     28      |2    28*       50 
Than  the  mornin' -glories  makes, — 


o     3i     •,    45         o        37     ©2      40 

10  10  12 

And  the  sunshine  would  look  sadder 

o      39        ©2     398     ©       34    o 
For  their  good  old-fashion  sakes. — 

67 

o2     43       o        37      o2    28 
I  like  'em  'cause  they  kind  o' 

o    23     o3    26  o  20    o      75 
Sort  o'  make  a  feller  like  'em  ; — 

•3 20  ©2   l6  •     20     o         22       o        34 
And        I        tell      you,       when      I       find      a 

o2       42      o       30   o2    39      o   70 
Bunch  out  whur  the  sun  kin  strike  'em, — 


§3     37    o 

10 

40        o2      23 

It      allus      sets 

me      thinkin' 

19        1. 

44        •„         44 

20 

o     43 

18 

O'       the       ones 

'at      used      to 

grow, 

o2     21 

©2    23       0                      31 

0      22 

And        peak 

in        thro'        the 

chinkin' 

42  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

o      23      o2       25    o2         25         o 
O'    the    cabin, — don't    you    know.— 
?  65 

§2     36      o      26       ^      64 
And  then  I   think  o'   mother, — 

40 

Ai8   ©3   20*      28     o        53 

15 

And    how    she    used    to    love    'em, — 

33 

o        24       £3       42    A     53 

When  there  wuzn't  any  other, — 

40 

o?    37     o2       27    o  24  A       78 
'Less  she  found  'em  up  above  (em)  ! — 

53 

o     40      *3  43  o     35    o2          58 

23 

And  her  eyes,  afore  she  shut  'em, — 

44 

o       3°     o    33     £2       46        o    22 

24 

Whispered  with  a  smile,  (and)  said — 

8 

o      34       o   26     ©2         55    o2     19 
We  must  pick  a  bunch — and  put  'em 

24 

o    27     o2  74       o     32       o 

In  her  hand — when  she  was  dead. — 
37  69 

O      20         O        24        §2     II    56 

But,     as     I     was     a     saying, — 

12 

44    0,    32  o      34 
They  ain't — no  style  about  'em — 
8  19 

•     29     »2     55*       3°  o2       73 

9  25  12 

Very     gaudy     or     displaying — 

53 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  43 

A  34     ©a    20     °       27°        ^° 
Yet  I  wouldn't  be  without  'em, — 

40 

o       44     ©2    33    A      44     ©2       54 
'Cause  I'm  happier  in  these  posies, — 

28 

02  22  O  52          O      48 

(And  the)  hollyhawks — and  sich, — 
15  39 

O         25      O  21         O  38       |3       36 

Than  the  hummin'  bird, — 'at  noses 

15 
o     26       •.,    49  v 

16 

In  the  roses  of  the  rich. 

(Old  Fashioned  Roses,  Hoosier  Dialect,  J.  W.  Riley. ) 

Unit  of  measurement,  -fa  of  a  second. 

The  poem  was  recited  from  memory.      No  suggestions  were  offered. 

The  style  abounds  in  the  pathetic  and  the  grave.  The  movement  is 
rather  slow,  with  occasional  diminuendos  and  crescendos  and  retarded 
and  quickened  pace.  The  melody  and  swing  are  peculiarly  Rileyan. 
The  rhythm  is  not  continuous.  The  total  effect  upon  the  ear  is  pleasing. 

The  verses  are  largely  end-stopped.  Numerous  sectional  punctuation 
marks  occur.  Five  stanzas  were  measured  in  order  to  obtain  ample 
material  for  a  study  of  the  regularity  of  the  verse  intervals. 

Second  specimen,  E.  W.  S.      (Scripture.) 

17     o   21     ©2     31 
The  cities  are  full  of  pride,— 

20 

©2      24         o    20    o     35 
Challenging  each  to  each — 
29 

0-2  28          o    23      o      27 

This  from  her  mountain  side,— 

16 

©2  20  ©2         19  O 

That  from  her  burthened  beach. 


44  /.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

o2        21        o      29    ©2  34 
They  count  their  ships  full  tale — 

15 

o      24    o     25     ©2    36 
Their  corn  and  oil  and  wine, — 

25 

o        25  o       20     o     40 

Derrick  and  loom  and  bale, — 

27 

o     26      o        27        o    42 
And  ramparts  gun-flecked  line, — 

3i 

O       21       O         23        O       32 

City  by  city  they  hail : — 
18 

©2     19       o        23       A 
Hast  aught  to  match  with  mine  ? 

O         13         %,  21        O        27 

And  the  men  that  breed  from  them — 

12 

015     o     18       os  41 
They  traffic  up  and  down, — 

25 

o2       24          £18    030 
But  cling  to  their  cities  hem — 

12 

©3  23        O         17        02 

As  a  child  to  the  mother's  gown. 

O  25  ©2     21        041 

When  they  talk  with  the  strange  bands, — 

29 

§  27         020       O          42 

Dazed  and  newly  alone  ; — 
24 

o       25  o    '22   o   43 

When  they  walk  in  the  stranger  lands, — 

30 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  45 

©2    22    o   23       o     33 
By  roaring  streets  unknown  ; — 

24 

©2        26       o       26        o     39 
Blessing  her  where  she  stands — 

20 

o2  19       o         19       o 
For  strength  above  their  own. 

AZ    17     o      24      o   28 
On  high  to  hold  her  fame — 
9 

|3    30        o  21      o       39 
That  stands  all  fame  beyond, — 

26 

0190      27      040 

By  oath  to  back  the  same, — 

24 

o2  26  o       190      54 
Most  faithful -foolish  -fond  ; — 

42 

A  26     £,  26  o   24 

Making  her  mere  breathed  name 

O    19     O  20          O 

Their  bond  upon  their  bond. 


© 

A  3 


19    o         29     ©2    26 
So  thank  I  God  —  my  birth  — 

8  7 

o     17    A2  27  o     32 
Fell  not  in  aisles  aside  — 
24 

o    12    o    15     ©     16     ©3     31 
Waste  headlands  of  the  earth,  — 


02      2IQ  29  O      30 

Or  warring  tribes  untried  — 
16 


46  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 


®2       15        O       20       ©2       28 

But  that  she  lent  me  worth  — 


©2        19       ©2       21        O 

And  gave  me  right  to  pride. 

•s      27    o    26   02   25 
Surely  in  toil  or  fray  — 


©3       J9  o2   25    ©2   35 

Under  an   alien   sky,  — 

24 

*3     18    o  19  ©2     24 

Comfort  it  is  to  say  :  — 

ii 

©24          O        22    © 

Of  no  mean  city  am  I. 
(Dedication  to  the  City  of  Bombay,  Kipling.) 

Unit  of  measurement,  ^  of  a  second. 

The  first  two  stanzas  were  declaimed  from  memory  ;  the  others  were 
read  from  the  book.  The  verses  are  end-stopped.  No  sectional  punc- 
tuation marks  occur. 

The  record  is  typical  of  the  subject,  especially  as  regards  emphasis, 
distinctness  of  articulation  and  rapidity  of  utterance.  The  point  wliich 
most  impresses  the  ear  is  the  preservation  of  the  rhythmic  flow,  both  ir 
respect  of  the  recurrence  of  the  centroids  and  the  equality  of  the  verse 
intervals.  The  last  stanza  has  a  peculiar  jog-trot  swing  ;  it  will  be  used  in 
the  study  of  sing-song  rhythm.  The  rhythm  of  the  other  stanzas  is,  in 
places,  so  pronounced  that  the  record  could  have  been  subsumed  under 
the  head  of  doggerel  scansion.  The  thirty-five  lines  furnish  ample  ma- 
terial for  studying  the  verse  interval  rhythm. 

Third  specimen,  A.  D.  B.  (Bissell,  musical  composer,  graduate 
student.  ) 

(A.) 

•  ,      23        |s  32      §  38        g2    36 

Over  the  chimney  —  the  night-wind  sang  — 

7  15 

©3       25    o       22     0130130,      77 

And  chanted  a  melody  —  no  one  knew  ;  — 
6  56 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  47 


A 
©3 


32  o     15      o   27         o       38 
And  the  woman  stopped, —  as  her  babe  she  tossed, — 
23  20 

o        18  o  38     •,       55        •    60 

18  12 

And  thought   of  the  one  she  had  long  since — lost, — 

18         38 

o2        65  o2       34         ©3      29    o       81 

And  said, — as  her  tear-drops — back  she  forced,— 
38  8  55 

©a        34     ©2  40     o 

8  e 

"  I  hate — the  wind — in  the  chimney." 

13  15 

(What  the  Chimney  Sang,  Bret  Harte.) 

(B.) 

o          25     o2    30    ©3   30    o2    27    o     40 
Though  the  mills  of  God — grind — slowly, — 
17  18  22 

o?       22       o2   39      |2       33   o        71 

22 

Yet  they  grind  exceeding — small ; — 

?       56 

o  28       ^3          41  o      29     ©  42 

Though  with  patience — He  stands — waiting,— 

15  ?  27 

o   26  c2         43   o      29       o 
With  exactness — grinds  He  all. 

20  (Retribution,  Longfellow.) 

Unit  of  measurement,  -fa  of  a  second. 

The  first  stanza  was  recited  from  memory ;  the  second,  from  the  book. 
The  subject  was  uninstructed.  The  verses  are  end-stopped,  with  sectional 
pauses. 

The  record  presents  a  variety  of  smooth  and  rugged  movements.  The 
swing  in  some  phrases  is  almost  pendulum  like.  The  centroids  are  well 
emphasized.  The  subject  was  intent,  apparently,  on  forcibly  and  artis- 
tically expressing  the  thoughts,  rather  than  guarding  against  interruptions 
in  the  flow.  The  movement  is  rather  slow. 

Fourth  specimen,  W.  W.      (Wallin.) 

©    21        •,     44       •,  23  ©         26  •     43         »3   19©       43 
The  sky  is  changed  ! — and    such    a  change  ! — Oh  night, — 
34  35  I9 


48  /.  £.   Wallace  Wallin, 

•3         5°     »3     42        0    17     ©        31        o   43 
And  storm  —  and  darkness,  —  ye  are  wondrous  strong,  — 
21  ii  28 

A3    l8  o      32         ©2  43         ?e20?7     28     o    30 
Yet    lovely    in    your   strength,  —  as      is    the    light 

33 

*2    J4  A2     24       o  45    o  20   o       32 

11  13 

Of    a     dark      eye     in     woman  !  —  Far     along,— 

35  J3 

23     o  35     o        22   o   25       •       36 

From   peak    to    peak,  —  the    rattling    crags    among  — 
18  25 

03        27      o  18  *2      55         o       24      ;2i4?236    o     3° 

15  10 

Leaps    the    live    thunder  !  —  Not    from    one    lone    cloud,  — 
30  18 

o  16     ®2       25    o       18     o       21    o     43 
But  every  mountain  now  hath  found  a  tongue,  — 

23 

©9   l6  o        35      o  20     o    20    •     43 

And  Jura  answers,  —  through  her  misty  shroud,  — 
14  32 

o2     28          ©   21    o  41      o       19   o   33     o 

Back  to  the  joyous  Alps,  —  who  call  —  to  her  —  aloud  ! 

22  ?  22 


©2    17  o   14      ©        80  »8     41    o2      54 

And  this  is  in  the  night  :  —  Most  glorious  night  !  — 
45  44 

*2I2      ©a    II   O   II   O         22        ©  58    %2       14       O 

3  O 

Thou   wert   not   sent   for   slumber  !  —  let   me   be 

37 

18  •,,       28   ©15*3         36     •,  17  ©       53 

34  12 

A  sharer  in  thy  fierce  —  and  far  delight,  — 
10  40 

o2        30  ©,     28      o    15        §,51 

A  portion  of  the  tempest  —  and  of   Thee  !  — 
18  39 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech. 


49 


A 
©3 

How 


12 

the 


14 


48 


lit     lake 


shines, — a 


o?  9  ©2    IZ    o    35 
phosphoric     sea, — 

2S 


A 

And 


ii        ®2  14  •  14    013       J3      25       o?      10         o      52 
the     big     rain     comes     dancing     to     the     earth ! — 

38 

o,     35  o         27       o          67       ©         30      •,  63 

And  now — again — 'tis  black, — and  now, — the  glee — 
20          15  40  8  23 

©  19  •  71      •,  47         o        19      o      54 

Of  the  loud    hills — shakes  with  its  mountain  mirth, — 
52  45 

0180     15^348*        20012       A2          54        o 
As  if  they  did  rejoice — o'er  a  young  earth-quakes — birth. 
33  23 

(Childe  Harold,  Byron.) 
Unit  of  measurement,  ^  of  a  second. 

The  stanzas  were  chosen  as  typical  examples  of  Byronic  vigor.  The 
record  strikes  the  ear  as  aiming  more  at  painting  the  scene  than  moving 
in  measured  strides.  The  rhythm  is  vague.  Several  glides  occur.  The 
centroids  are  emotional,  rather  than  logical.  The  elements  of  pitch,  in- 
tensity and  duration  are  each  quite  conspicuous.  The  verses  afford  an  in- 
teresting study  of  the  sectional  and  end-line  pauses ;  several  are  run-on, 
with  sectional  pauses.  Several  of  the  larger  punctuation  marks  occur 
within  the  line. 


Fourth  specimen,  J.  K.      (Kawabe, 
graduate  student,  philosophy.  ) 

o    16 


o  19 


Kimiga  yo  wa 


21 


©3     I70I5 

Chiyo  ni  yachiyo  ni — 


12  A   18 
Sazare     ishe 


02 


°2         J 

no — 
7 


©3     25     O        20 

Iwao  to  narite 

o     8  o2  10    o    10  ©2 
Koke   no     musu    made. 

(National  poem  of  Japan.) 


36 


45 


40 


48 


Fifth   specimen,    I.   M.      (Miyake, 
graduate  student,  psychology. ) 


09090    17 
Kimiga    yo    wa — 


•2  22    010^ 

Chiyo    ni    yachiyo    ni — 


28 


35 


51 


o     i 
Sazare 


A 

.02 

ishi 


no — 
39 


•     29    o        25 
Iwao  to  nari  te — 


o  15    o  ii  o    ii  ©2 


Koke    no    musu    made. 


52 


Unit  of  measurement,  ^  of  a  second. 


50  J.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

The  numerals  following  each  verse  indicate  lengths  of  the  lines. 

Both  subjects  are  natives  of  Japan.  The  poem  was  recited  (chanted) 
and  declaimed,  strictly  following  Japanese  usage.  The  above  are  the 
records  of  declamation  and  not  of  song. 

The  line  meter  strikes  the  ear  as  being  perhaps  more  prominent  than 
the  centroid  or  "foot"  meter.  Theoretically,  Japanese  poetry  is  non- 
accentual.  The  centroids,  however,  were  easily  located  by  the  experi- 
menter, and  the  result  was  verified  by  the  judgment  of  J.  K.  Japanese 
admit  emphasis,  as  distinguished  from  accent,  but  make  the  distribution 
wholly  arbitrary.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  both  records  correspond 
in  regard  to  the  location  of  the  centroids,  with  the  exception  of  one 
instance. 

The  only  meter  which  Japanese  prosody  recognizes  is  the  line  meter, 
the  above  consisting  of  an  alternation  of  the  five-syllable  with  the  seven- 
syllable  type.  The  five  verses  constitute  one  sentence. 

The  following  is  a  free  English  rendering  of  the  poem:  "May  thy 
throne  last  forever,  until  the  sands  shall  become  rock  and  mosses  shall 
grow  thereon." 

Sixth  specimen,  H.  O.      (Ohrnstedt,  age  12). 

A3    20     ©2  3°         ©2        2I     ©  38 

I  stilla  glans — han  trader  fram  : — 
8  15 

©3   20  o     3°        ©2  I9  ©  48 

Af  spridda  far — och  spada  lam — 

ii  28 

02        20     O          27       ^       20  O     38 

Han  sig  en  hjord — forsamla  vill, — 
12  18 

^3     190    20    o3  200    55 

Den  himmelriket — horer  till. — 

?  33 

%3  22     O    20       0220          O    37 

Och  himmel  skall  forgas  och  jord, — 

*9 

0S  20  O      IQ  02   20    O    42 

Men  ej  hans  helga  dyra  ord, — 

22 

A3        22     021%       21     O 

Hans  namn  af  alia  tungorsljud — 

20 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  51 

39          O     21    0   20  O  20    O 

Skall  kallas  Fralsare  och  Gud. 

Unit  of  measurement,  ^  of  a  second. 

The  record  was  taken  for  the  purpose  of  studying  sing-song.  The 
rhythm  is  very  marked. 

The  end-stopped  verses  predominate.  No  intra-line  punctuation  marks 
occur. 

Seventh  specimen,  O.  S.      (Sandquist,  age  13). 

O     2O    O  22      O    19       O    26 

O.  Jesu  Krist — att  nalkas  dig — 
?  ii 

o  16  o     190       39 

Och  dig  i  tro  tillbedja, — 

18 

O    21        O      21      O     2O         O  26    O    26    O 

Det  endast  kan  pa  sorgens  stig— ratt  innerlig — 

10 

For  first  stanza  and  explanation  see  p.  28. 

This  record  furnishes  an  excellent  specimen  of  the  doggerel  scansion  so- 
common  to  children. 

Eighth  specimen,  G.  A.  A.  (Andreen,  lecturer ;  professor  of  Scandi- 
navian languages.) 

£2     16          o    16    * ,      27  *,    14  031  o    19       ©3 

Washington    was   a   statesman    of  the    highest    order, — never   a   wily 

18 

X9  02      I5        °    IJ    ©2  42          °        *6  ©3       20  A  20  02   I0  °  25 

scheming  pol  i  tician. — When  a  cabal  was  formed — to  remove  him  from 
32  ? 

A      16        *2    16  47    |3  15     0,140       16       %2      20 

the  command  and  elevate    Gates, — in    perfect    equipoise  of  mind  and 

27 

o     25  *2       23        o         59      ©2       25  A     l6    o          S2 

temper, — he  moved  not  a  finger. — Neither  was  he  a  brilliant  orator. — 

6  47  33 

o  10      o         28  o     13  o   20    ^2     15       c        4°  ©3     25 

So  that  his  excellence  consisted  not  in  show  and  glitter, — but  in  nobleness 

24 


52  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

•2    48     A       18          OISA,  34  20     o  59 

of   heart, — solidity    of   understanding, — and    tenacity    of   purpose. — No 
23  J4  37 

^3  16       o         25    o      15     o  18       •    29      o,        18      ©3         35          ©, 
wonder  then — that  every  American  feels — as  if  it  were  true, — that  "  take 
16  19  21 

20  O      13    O  32          *2  9  O  12  O      10    O      15       O   12   O  4!  02 

him  for  all  in  all, — we  shall  not    look  upon  his  like  again," — that  none 
18  23 

25         oiio      150         34  o2       26      o  25      o     42       o2  31 

do  we  more  love  to  honor, — none  so  impresses  our  souls, — as  he, — "the 

23  23  15 

©3    18    o         32    ©2    20     o      38         ©2   24          ©2       23       o 
first  in  war, — the  first  in  peace, — the  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen. ' ' 
17  21 

Unit  of  measurement,  -J-%  of  a  second. 

The  address  was  read  from  the  manuscript.  The  style  was  rhetorical ; 
the  utterances  rapid  and  forcible.  The  subject  was  asked  to  make  the 
record  a  typical  address  to  an  audience. 

Tenth  specimen,  W.  L.  P.      (Phelps,  lecturer ;   professor,  Eng.  Lit. ) 

A       12     o    18     ©2        62  ^3    20     oi70        29  o2  34 

The  class   of  ninety-nine — did  not  hold  a  very  high  reputation — as 

22  12 

o        70  o         38        o2  20  •   27        ®2     80    •      37  ^3  21        o 

scholars, — either  for — study  or  for  morals. — And  it  was  notorious  that 
23  J3  7o 

21017^2     170       16  021       ©3       93  ©,  "ft    .34 

they  paid  no  attention  to  the  Sunday  services ;  — but  one  morning,  the 

56 

©2    41        o     14    ©2      54  o  ii    o     24    •„      55  |2     22    §a     20  §s      84 

minister, — in  the  chapel, — gave  out  the  hymn — number  ninety-nine  !  — 

13  34  36  74 

o       20    AQ3   16  •  55     o2  35     o      25  o      17   ft  48  o      20 

And  with  one  accord, — the  students  of  the  class  of  ninety-nine — opened 
32  34 

o       40  ©2        I9    ©2         77       o       16      o    17  §2          34 

the  hymn  book, — to  find  the  place — and  what  was  their  amazement,  on 
13  52 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  53 

o   21  *3  20  •,     65  o     20      |2     i6«       70     |2   25   §3  45 

reading    the    first  —  line,  —  number    ninety-nine;  —  great  —  God!  —  what 
?          49  53  10  16 

©2        43          ©a          40     O 

worthless  —  worms  are  we  ! 


Unit  of  measurement,  ^  of  a  second. 

The  words  were  spoken  extemporaneously.  The  movement  is,  on  the 
whole,  slow  ;  the  articulation  distinct  ;  the  style  colloquial.  The  sen- 
tences were  punctuated  by  the  speaker. 

Eleventh  specimen,  C.  O.  S.  (Scoville,  clergyman,  graduate  student, 
philosophy.  ) 


A 


02  17       02     HO  13        O          13    02    20      A2  23          O  22 

Almighty       God,       unto        whom        all         hearts        are       open, — 

7 
•2    32       oa    25     •  34         *     28     o     ii    o  16  A    34  © 

20  IS  • 

all        desires — known, — and     from     whom       no — secrets     are     hid  ; 
9  15  8 

44      £       25  o2  17      •    13     o          31  020    o2  33 

— Cleanse     the      thoughts     of    our       hearts — by     the     inspiration     of 

39  8    ' 

o     20    o      35  g  18         ^3      26        o3          36 

thy       Holy — Spirit, — that       we       may      perfectly       love — thee, — and 
14  27  ?  19 

o    15       o         32     *,   14  o    16    o  45  o          34         © 

10  9 

worthily    magnify —  thy       holy    Name  ; — through    Christ — our    Lord, 
ii  25  12 

•2  33  o  29  o  29  o  34 

10 

Lord, — let      me      know     mine      end,     and      the      number     of    my 
? 

O        20  O  21  OHO  28  O        28        O        24       O      58         0J 

17 

days : — that    I   may   be    certified    how    long    I    have    to   live. — Behold, 
7  36 

23     O  26  O  27          O     30  O          22         02     l8«  50 

— thou    hast    made    my    days    as    it    were — a    span — long : — and    my 
7  12  ?  16 


54  /•  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

•         21     O  27       ^8      l6       O     20     O  21          •       46  O    19      O          30    • 

age    is    even    as    nothing    in   respect   of  thee ; — and   verily   every    man 

27 
©  25  «     28  o        19  o 

18 

living      is      al — together — vanity. 
?  7 

Unity  of  measurement,  -^  of  a  second. 

Both  prayers  were  read  from  the  manual.  The  latter  is  offered  at  the 
burial  of  the  dead.  The  movement  is  slow,  the  melody  solemn,  the 
intonation  monotonous,  the  style  that  of  devout  consecration  or  solemn 
importunation,  and  the  rhythm  quite  manifest  in  certain  phrases.  The 
duration  centroids  are  prominent. 

Test  records. — The  rhythmic  feeling  has  been  asserted  to  be  the 
most  general  aesthetic  endowment  of  man.1  Most  people  undoubtedly 
•distinguish  spoken  verse  from  prose  largely  on  the  basis  of  this  feel- 
ing. The  external  embodiment  of  verse  (aside  from  the  nature  of  the 
thought),  that  is,  its  verse  and  stanza-like  structure  as  it  appears  in 
print,  may  be  presumed,  however,  from  the  law  of  association,  to  play  no 
inconsiderable  part  in  lending  support  to  the  distinction.  How,  now, 
would  the  judgment  of  the  individual  be  affected  after  the  props  of  asso- 
ciation have  been  removed  ?  How  would  na'ive,  unsophisticated  thought 
regard  the  distinction  of  prose  and  poetry  into  measured  and  unmeasured 
language. 

To  get  at  the  uncritical,  spontaneous  judgment  of  the  individual,  the 
following  test  was  devised  : 

The  subject  was  conveniently  seated  before  the  phonograph,  and  was 
given  a  short  passage  in  print,  the  contents  of  which  were  unknown  to 
him,  to  be  immediately  read  into  the  phonograph.  He  was  urged  to  make 
his  reading  natural  and  representative. 

Two  devices  were  employed.  In  the  first  the  subject  was  given  a  selec- 
tion of  poetry  printed  in  the  form  of  prose ;  in  the  second,  a  passage  of 
melodious  prose  printed  as  a  stanza  of  poetry.  In  the  latter  case  the  sub- 
ject was  allowed  to  read  the  stanza  through,  before  speaking  into  the  tube, 
.and  was  then  told  to  read  it  according  to  his  own  discretion. 

After  the  passage  had  been  read  the  following  questions  were  asked : 

1 .  Did  the  passage,  as  you  read  it,  sound  familiar  ? 

2.  What  did  you  spontaneously  conclude  regarding  its  form?     If  the 
•question  had  never  been  raised,  would  you  have  taken  it  for  granted  that 
you  read  a  piece  of  poetry  or  prose  ?     What  did  you  feel  it  to  be  ? 

1  LANIER  ;  GURNEY,  as  before,  128  ff. ;  BOLTON,  as  before. 


Researches  on  f/ie  rhythm  of  speech.  55 

3.  Without  engaging  in  reflective  analysis,  what  do  you  instinctively 
feel  to  be  at  the  basis  of  your  judgment?     Why  poetry?     Why  prose? 

4.  Did  the  passage  sound  smooth  or  rugged  as  you  were  reading,  or 
was  it  indifferent  ? 

5.  What  did  you  feel  these  properties  to  be  due  to  ? 

6.  Did  the  passage  sound  melodious  to  you?     If  so,  what  does  melody 
in  speech  mean  to  you  ?     What  are  its  elements  ? 

Care  was  taken  lest  the  subject  should  begin  to  unduly  reflect  upon  the 
questions.  Those  judgments  were  rejected  where  the  subject  was  familiar 
with  the  quotations.  The  questions  were  submitted  to  several  persons 
from  whom  no  records  were  taken. 

The  questions  are  in  no  wise  to  be  considered  as  a  statistical  enquiry. 
They  are  only  intended  to  reveal  the  state  of  consciousness,  or  the  spon- 
taneous judgments,  of  unsuspecting  subjects. 

After  the  answers  had  been  given  and  the  device  exposed,  the  sub- 
jects of  the  first  experiment  were  handed  a  copy  in  which  the  poetical 
quotation  was  printed  in  its  original  form, — that  is,  as  poetry.  The  sub- 
jects were  then  asked  to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  contents,  and  read 
it  as  poetry.  Thus  it  was  possible  to  make  a  comparison  of  the  two  ren- 
derings by  a  study  of  the  phonograph  records. 

A  third  device  consisted  in  eliminating  all  the  punctuation  marks. 
The  subject  was  not  allowed  to  examine  the  passage  before  speaking  it 
into  the  recording  tube. 

(  a  )   Records  of  verse. 

Twelfth  specimen.     J.  M.  T.     (Telleen,  graduate  student,   English.) 
(A,  without  punctuation  marks.) 

o2    16     o  14  o  25          o    25    o      41         028  •  40  o 

Nothing  henceforth — man's  existence — bows — [bows]  to  the  mo — ni- 
ii  29          24  20 

8       o  16  o     30     o      25       o      24     o      26      o     9      o  17      «2     27 
tion  wait  take  the  joys  and  bear  the  sorrows  neither  with  extreme  con- 

o    25  o  15      •    35    o     170       20     ©2   40       o        20       Q2i3©2         3° 

cern — living  here — means  nescience  simply — 'tis  [the]   next    life — that 

12  24  25  10 

o      15    o     18   ©  9  •  14    •   21  ®2  13  o        39     %.2     27012    •  14  •  27 

helps  to  learn — shut  those  eyes — next    life — will  open — stop  those  ears — 

7  8  29  12  13 

02  I2  °        33        o      19  o       20     o  37        •    14  •  13  o  26    o  14  o  n 
next   life — will    teach — hearing's  office — close    those    lips— next    life 
17  ii  23  17 


5  6  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

o  16  p      35        o      35        o 
will    give  the  power  of  speech  ! 

(B,  read  as  prose. ) 

©2         21  •   15    o     14    O    21  O     25  ©2  28         Q  7   O  26 

Nothing  ! — Henceforth    man's   existence — bows  to    the  mo   nition — 
8  5  8 

©2         32  o  18          ©2      28      *2      29      o     30        o      12     o?32     o   20 
wait — !     Take   the  joys  and  bear   the    sorrows — neither  with    extreme 
23  13 

o       39  A2io      •  16    o  18     o     17        o     35         012  o  n  o      23 
concern! — Living   here    means    nescience    simply: — 'tis   next   life   that 
26  25 

O        21        «2      41      0    II    010     *2      32    O    12   ©  20      O   41  »2      36  O  9 

helps  to  learn. — Shut  those  eyes, — next  life — will  open, —  [those]  stop 
29  20  6  23 

•  19041      «2  20  •     31     015      i«    24      o     40        ©2  8  o  7      ©2    37 
those  ears, — next  life  will  teach  hearing's  office, — close  those  lips, — 
27  .  27  25 

A  16  v     25       o       23        o       33        o 
next  life  will  give  the  power  of  speech  ! 

(C,  read  as  poetry. ) 

©2        23       o       52    •   20     o     20    o     26         ©2  35        o     23 

Nothing  ! — Hence — forth    man's    existence    bows   to    the    monition — 
10  44  8 

o  43 
wait —  ! 

35 

o  17       «2        42       o     24    g2    37        c_   12     p  20     o     25       o       40 

Take  the  joys — and  bear  the  sorrows — neither  with  extreme  concern  ! — 

20  28  34 

©  18       *2   26  015      ia      19       o     43        o,  13  Q  13  p  24  o    ^20 

Living   here — means   nescience   simply: — 'tis    next   life    that   helps^to 
?  30 

o  50 
learn. — 
42 

©8  9  •:,  J3  •*   5°    o2  130      19    •         48   ©2  12  o   17  •,  46  o2   12  o 
Shut  those    eyes, — next     life  will  open, — stop    those  ears, — next    life 


34  33  37 


30     •  22 
will  teach 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  57 

A         16   o       50     02  8    o2  13  ©2  37  A2  12  o      28    o        270  36 

Hearing's  office, — close  those  lips, — next    life  will  give  the  power — of — 

37  28  ?      ? 

o 
speech. 

(Browning.) 

Unit  of  measurement,  -fa  of  a  second. 

Answers  to  questions. — i.  No.     2.  Prose.     3.  Form  of  print.     4.  Rug- 
ged.     5.   The  thought;   loose  rhythm.      6.   No. 

Thirteenth  specimen.      C.  O.      (Olson,  graduate  student,  English.) 

(A,  read  as  prose.  ) 

o2         32      o          30      o       22    o  29   ©2  29       o?  9  o        21 

Nothing  ! — Henceforth    man's    existence — bows  to  the    mon    ition — 

18  6  ii 

o3     39   o       18     ©        24     °,2      23     o         47    o      ii    o       20  A        21 
wait ! — Take  the  joys  and  bear  the  sorrows — neither  with  extreme  con- 
33  31 

A      46     o     14      o    16   o     40     o      26         o         41      ©  12  A2  13  ^      25 
cern  ! — Living     here    means — nescience    simply: — 'tis    next    life    that 
38  27  26 

©2      I9     •      3902    I2   ©  14  §3   29  o     12^     19     o        39|2I2®2 
helps    to    learn. — Shut   those    eyes, — next    life  will   open, — stop    those 
31  18  25 

ii  •      250250       23     o     14   ©,      19     o         43   «2   l6  »l6  ©3     25011 
ears, — next  life  will  teach  hearing's  office, — close   those   lips, — next 
15  26  15 

©,         24     o     12          ^2        25      o 
life — will    give    the    power   of — speech. 
6  9 

(B,  read  as  poetry. ) 

oa  46    o  16  •     18  o     21    o  26   o  29          o       21     o2    41 

Nothing  ! — Henceforth  man's  existence — bows  to  the  monition — wait ! — 

30  10  10  32 

o      12    •         32      ©       19    •  51    o2    9     o      17  o        22    o       49 

1 0  11 

Take  the  joys — and  bear  the  sorrows — neither  with  extreme  concern  ! — 
X5  32  35 

A         10  ^20  013       ©j      23      o      34        o?ii02i2o      20         o        18 
Living   here    means   nescience    simply: — 'tis    next    life    that    helps    to 

22 

o        42 
learn. — 


58  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

3° 

©3    8   o     9  02    23  o    12  ©2     20     ^2      23    02  8     «2 12  *2  24  ©2    90 

Shut  those   eyes, — next   life    will  open, — stop    those  ears, — next   life — 
9  l8  9  31 

47    o     21 
will  teach — 
ii 

Q3      16     o        41  o     80      9    o    26  ^3   12  92      21         o       16     22 

Hearing's  office, — close    those    lips, — next    life    will   give    the  power 

28  18 

31      o 
of — speech  ! 
16 

Unit  of  measurement,  -£%  of  a  second. 

Answers  to  questions. — i.  No.  2.  Dramatic  prose.  3.  Did  not  "feel" 
it  to  be  poetry.  4.  Smooth.  5.  The  movement.  6.  Yes.  Smoothness 
and  movement. 

Fourteenth  specimen.     G.  F.  A.     (Abel,  graduate  student,  philosophy. ) 

(  Without  punctuation  marks.) 

g,   12   *2   17  ©2      30      o3     29  0       37  ©3   19  o     17 

Henceforth  man's  existence — bows  to  the  monition — wait — take  the 

14  26        10 

0,      25        ®2        19      ©2        39   o      10     o,  24    o3  24    o2io  o?    14 

joys   and    bear    the    sorrows — neither    with    extreme — concern — living 

25  8  ? 

O      l8      0?II©?  220  52  *2  14  03  31       O        17      •          41     02 

here  means  nescience — simply — 'tis  next  life — that  helps  to  learn — shut 
7  33  l6  3i 

i2©2    10*    22o2  10  ©3    15     o      36   o   9    •  13  •  37  o2   12  o     19       o  10 
those  eyes — next  life  will  open — stop  those  ears — next  life  will   teach 
8  25  24 

®3        X5  o      39    •*   12  »2  15  ©   330   120  18        o       17       o  29 

hearing's   office — close  those  lips — next  life  will  give  the  power  of — 
26                            26  8 

o 
speech  ! 

Unit  of  measurement,  ^  of  a  second. 

Answer  to  questions. — i.  No.  2.  Prose.  3.  Arrangement  of  words ; 
form;  lack  of  rhyme.  4.  First  part,  rough;  second  part,  smooth.  5. 
Lack  of  meaning  and  punctuation  marks.  6.  Yes  and  no,  as  in  4. 
Rhythm,  if  anything. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  59 

Fifteenth  specimen.     W.  C.     (Churchill,  graduate  student,  philosophy.) 
(A,   read  as  prose. ) 

o     18     ©2         23       09  o?  15    0     23     o     16    -02   15  «2      17  o 
Oh  yet  we  trust — that  somehow  good  will    be  the   final  goal   of   ill, 
5 

49        o2    23       o      24    o    21       o   53       o       19        ©3  25       ©2      21 

— to  pangs  of  nature, — sins  of  will, — defects    of   doubt, — and    taints   of 
39  I2  45  *9 

o       56  ©2        21    o         30       ©    21        o    57  on  014  ©2 

blood; — that   nothing  walks — with    aimless    feet; — that    no    one    life — 

5°  l8  49  9 

24      o    15     o       40         o        22  o      19    o      ii     o     49  ©2 

shall  be  destroyed — or  cast  as  rubbish  to  the  void, — when  God   hath 
31  4i 

24      O          l8      O  22    O 

made  the  pile  complete. 

(  B,   read  as  poetry . ) 

o       20  ©2        28     o  9     •          ©3 
Oh  yet  we  trust — that  somehow — good — 

13  ?  9 

23    o    19     ©2  18  §2   210    40 
Will  be  the  final  goal  of  ill,— 

37 

o      23    •,       27  o     24     o  45 

To  pangs  of  nature, — sins  of  will, — 

15  37 

O        23         O        46  O        22        O         6l 

Defects  of  doubt, — and  taints  of  blood  ; — 
34  48 

A  2      18    o        23      o      20  o     48 
That  nothing  walks  with  aimless  feet ; — 

43 

®2  10  o  13  ©3       27      o      19    o       36 
That  no    one    life — shall  be  destroyed, — 
ii  33 

0270        22         014         048 

Or  cast  as  rubbish — to  the  void, — 
?  34 

o          26      o       23    |s        41     o 
When  God  hath  made  the  pile — complete. 

16 
(Tennyson. ) 


6o  /.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

Unit  of  measurement,  ^  of  a  second. 

Sixteenth  specimen.      B.  S.  G.      (Gowen,  college  senior. ) 

(  Without  punctuation  marks. ) 

25         o      22     ^28  °,2       J7  ©2       29     o     14  o    16  •       41  o 
Oh  yet  we  trust  that  somehow — good — will  be  the  final  goal — of  ill — 

7  12  25  5 

22    o   24        o       39  o       60     c     30  o      18       o2  28    o     23      o 

to  pangs  of  nature — sins — of  will — defects  of  doubt  and  taints  of  blood 
26       35  19 

32  O        15  ©2  42  •      19  O  350      8   02   130     23 

— that    nothing  walks — with   aimless    feet — that    no    one    life — shall  be 
20  25  18  5 

16   o       40         o        22  o    19    o      ii     o          49       ©2  24    o       18 

destroyed — or  cast  as   rubbish   to  the  void — when  God  hath  made  the 
21  41 

O         22        O 

pile  complete. 

Unit  of  measurement,  -fa  of  a  second. 

Answers  to  questions. — i.  No.  2.  Prose.  3.  "  Felt  "  no  rhythm.  4. 
Quite  smooth.  5.  Smooth  succession  of  words  ;  occasional  rhythm.  6. 
In  parts.  Fitness  of  language  to  thought,  and  character  of  thought. 

Seventeenth  specimen.      S.      (Smith,  laboratory  mechanic. ) 

(A,  read  as  prose. ) 

o    19      o       25      o       24  o       17     o     18     o    19  o     17  o 

Oh  yet  we  trust  that  somehow — good  will  be  the  final  goal  of  ill, — 

5  42 

50       o       24     o         33   c  20        o     33     o      21  o     32  o      19 

to  pangs  of   nature, — sins  of  will, — defects  of  doubt, — and   taints  of 
18  25  23 

o  37       o  18   ©         30        o       23    o     50  on  ©2  120 

blood ; — that    nothing    walks    with    aimless    feet ; — that    no    one    life 

32  39 

21     o       32  •        53        o    25     o  29  o         66          o       16 

shall  be — destroyed — or  cast  as  rubbish — to  the  void, — when  God  hath 
19  30  I2  53 

O         20       O        23         O 

made  the  pile  complete. 

(B,  read  as  poetry.} 

o          42  o  25          o  51    o    33 

Oh  yet — we  trust  that  somehow — good 
18  27 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  61 

o    20    o   21    o   34   o   58 
Will  be  the  final  goal  of  ill,— 

45 

o  26  o         45  o  20          o    34 

To   pangs   of    nature, — sins   of    will, — 

29  27 

o      22      o  40       o     20      o       59 

Defects  of  doubt, — and  taints  of  blood  ; — 

25  43 

o      19       o  29      o        22  •    47 

That  nothing  walks — with  aimless  feet ; — 

?  29 

o    10029    o  25       o       18      o       36 

That     no     one     life — shall     be     destroyed, — 

7  22 

o    23  o          430 ?    Z7  o     49 
Or  cast  as  rubbish — to  the  void,— 

23  32 

o          29        o       19      o      24      o 
When  God — hath  made  the  pile  complete. 

7 

Unit  of  measurement,  ^  of  a  second. 

Answers  to  questions,  i.  No.  2.  Prose.  3.  Felt  little  rhythm.  4. 
Not  very  smooth.  5.  Form  of  expression.  6.  Yes.  Rhythm  and  vowel 
sounds. 

Two  other  persons  replied  to  the  questions,  but  no  records  of  their 
recitations  were  made.  (B)  i.  No.  2.  Poetry.  3.  Rhythm,  rhyme 
and  sentiment.  4.  Smooth.  5.  Metrical  perfection,  uniform  length  of 
words,  avoidance  of  sibilants.  6.  Yes.  Meter,  onomatopoetic  words, 
o  sounds,  polished  expression  of  sentiment.  (C)  i.  No.  2.  Prose. 
3.  Form  of  print.  4.  Smooth.  5.  Rhythm  and  rhyme.  6.  No. 

The  above  two  specimens  of  poetry  are  taken  from  the  two  foremost 
poets  of  the  century  just  closed,  the  one  standing  for  the  highest  met- 
rical perfection,  the  other  emphasizing  the  content  rather  than  the  formal 
investiture  of  thought.  Each  instance  contains  one  case  of  run-on 
verses.  The  Browning  selection,  however,  contains  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  intra-line  punctuation  marks. 

To  the  ear  the  rhythm  of  the  prose  and  poetry  renderings  appears  to 
be  about  equally  balanced.  Appeal  was  made  to  several  ears.  On  the 


6i  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

basis  of  the  rhythm  the  attempt  to  distinguish  the  prose  from  the  poetry 
in  the  readings  did  not  prove  very  successful. 

The  movement  in  the  records  without  the  punctuation  marks  appears 
the  most  rugged.  In  these  records  the  pauses  strike  the  ear  as  if  placed 
with  diffidence  and  hesitancy. 

(<£)   Records  of  prose. 
Eighteenth  specimen.      S.  I.     (Isakson,  stenographer.) 

•2 19    o         26         o  13  ©,  20     o         47 

To  the  poor  Christian  that  sits  bound  in  the  galley ; — 

28 

©,     20  o      27        o     17      o  32       o     14    o      39 

To  despairful  widows, — pensive  prisoners, — and  deposed  kings  ; — 

13  12  29 

o         21       ©2  28      o  30  o    15  o        50 

To  them  whose  fortune  runs  back — and  whose  spirits  mutiny — 

7  21 

o    19     ©2         23     o  29  o    14     o      17      o 

Unto  such — death  is  a  redeemer, — and  the  grave  a  place  for  rest. 
9  10 

(Essay  on  Death,  Bacon.) 
Unit  of  measurement,  -fa  of  a  second. 

Answers  to  questions. — i.    No.      2.   Poetry.      3.    Form  of  print,   easy 
movement,  and  beautiful  sentiment.      4.   Smooth.      5.   Meter.     6.   No. 
Nineteenth  specimen.      O.  E.  S.     (Staaf,  graduate  student,  Latin.) 

©2  ii    o         28          013   o      70       ioo         38 
To  the  poor  Christian  that  sits  bound  in  the  galley ; — 

21 

o      16  o          26  o       190  38  o     18  o      31 

To  despairful  widows, — pensive  prisoners, — and  deposed  kings  ; — 

12  14  20 

©2  29       o  o        021  o    14  o     17  o       43 

To  them — whose  fortune  runs  back  and  whose  spirits  mutiny — 

8     ,  15 

©2     21       O  25         O  29  O      15        O         15        O 

Unto  such — death  is  a  redeemer, — and  the  grave  a  place  for  rest. 
14  10 

Units  of  measurement,  -fa  of  a  second. 

Answers  to  questions. — i.  No.  2.  Poetry.  3.  Meter,  outward  form. 
4.  Neither.  6.  No. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  63 

Answers  to  questions  were  obtained  in  several  cases  without  taking 
phonograph  records.  (D)  i.  No.  2.  Poetry.  3.  Periodic  recur- 
rence of  accents.  4.  Smooth.  5.  Rhythm.  6.  No.  (E)  i.  No.  2. 
Doubtful.  First  two  lines  poetry ;  last  two  lines  upset  judgment.  3. 
Rhythm  of  first  two  lines  (poetry)  ;  prosaic  thought  (prose).  4.  Feel- 
ing of  smoothness  gradually  vanishing.  5.  Correspondence  of  main 
stress-points  in  first  two  lines  (3  each).  6.  Yes.  Rhythm.  (F)  i. 
No.  2.  Poetry.  3.  Verse-like  structure,  inversion,  a  certain  rhythm. 
6.  Yes.  Don't  know.  (G)  i.  No.  2.  Poetry.  3.  Mechanical  form 
and  poetic  sentiment.  4.  Smooth.  5.  ?.  6.  Yes.  (H),  poet  i.  No. 

2.  Rhythmical  prose.      3.   No  meter.      4.   Smooth  prose.      5.   Swinging 
movement.      6.   Yes.      Graceful  expression  of  thought,  alliteration  and 
interior  rhymes.      (I)  i.  No.     2.  Poetry.      3.  Meter  and  poetic  language, 
especially  the  second  line.      4.   Not  altogether  smooth.      5.   Smooth  flow. 
6.   Yes.     Pleasing  sounds.     (J)  i.  No.  2.  Both.     Lines  2  and  4,  poetry; 
lines  i  and  3,  prose.      3.  Rhythm  and  lack  of  rhythm.      4.   Lines  2  and  4, 
smooth.      5.    Rhythm.      6.    Yes.  ? 

The  second  specimen  of  rhythmical  prose  arranged  as  a  stanza  of 
poetry  is  found  on  p.  26.  The  questions  elicited  the  following  replies : 
(K)  i.  No.  2.  Poetry.  3.  Rhythm.  4.  Smooth.  5.  Regular  recur- 
rence of  accents.  6.  Vague  feeling  of  melody.  (L)  i.  No.  2.  Poetry. 

3.  Regularly  recurring  accents  (primarily),   rhyme,   printed  form.      4. 
Fairly  smooth.       5.   Rhythm.       6.    No.      (M)    i.    No.      2.    Poetry.      3. 
Rhythm  and  rhyme.      4.  Smooth.      5.   Uniform  number  of  syllables   to 
line.      6.    Yes.    Rhyme.      (N)    i.   No.      2.    Prose  printed  as  verse.      3. 
Subject-matter    prosaic.       4.    First    part    smoother.       5.    Rhythm   and 
rhyme.      6.  No. 

The  judgments  were  derived  from  persons  who,  according  to  admission, 
possessed  more  or  less  poetic  appreciation.  Nearly  all  were  admirers  of 
music  and  the  majority  possessed  some  knowledge  of  its  rudiments.  The 
answers  throw  some  light  on  the  varied  manifestation  of  the  instinctive  or 
native  appreciation  of  rhythm,  smoothness  and  melody  in  speech.  The 
connotation  of  the  term  melody  of  speech  is  in  most  people's  minds 
shifting  and  vague.  This  is  suggested  by  the  answers  and  by  a  cursory 
glance  at  the  popular  discussions  of  the  subject.  The  word  answers,  in 
most  people's  minds,  to  no  fixed  conception.  To  most  subjects  it  is 
interchangeable  with  rhythm  (motion);  to  some,  with  vowel  sounds, 
rhyme  and  alliteration  (tone-color);  to  others,  graceful  and  fit  expression 
of  thought ;  and  yet  to  others  the  term  has  no  signification. 

The  connotation  of  the  term  smoothness  of  speech  is  more  fixed  than 
that  of  melody.  This  quality  was  felt  to  be  due  to  the  quality,  first,  of 


64  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

the  movement,  and  second,  of  the  sound.  In  some  cases  no  definite 
notion  corresponded  to  the  term  ;  in  others,  no  smoothness  was  felt.  In 
some  of  the  latter  cases,  as  was  noticed  by  the  experimenter,  the  reading 
was  rugged. 

The  success  of  the  deception  varied.  Three  subjects  declared  the 
verses  of  Tennyson  and  Browning  to  be  prose.  The  reasons  given  were 
"lack  of  rhythm,"  "form  of  print,"  "indefinite."  Only  one  subject 
pronounced  the  verses  of  Browning,  and  two  the  verses  of  Tennyson, 
poetry.  All  the  judgments  were  based  on  the  feeling  of  rhythm.  Six 
subjects  called  the  prose  sentence  of  Bacon  poetry.  The  reasons 
given  were  the  outward  form,  sentiment,  poetic  language,  inversion  of 
words,  or  rhythm.  One  subject  was  doubtful,  one  pronounced  the  sen- 
tence half-and-half  and  one  (a  poet)  pronounced  it,  correctly,  rhythm- 
ical prose.  The  specimen  of  mathematical  prose  was  declared  to  be 
poetry  by  three  subjects  on  the  basis  of  rhythm,  rhyme,  or  the  form  of 
print ;  and  to  be  prose  written  as  verse  by  one  on  the  basis  of  the  prosaic 
subject  matter. 

Some  of  the  subjects,  who  felt  no  rhythm  in  the  lines,  pronounced  the 
passages  smooth,  others  feeling  no  smoothness  pronounced  the  lines 
rhythmical. 

The  following  corollaries,  to  be  held  tentatively,  are  deducible  from  a 
comparison  of  the  judgments  : 

(#)  Poetry  is  spontaneously  and  instinctively  distinguished  from  prose 
most  largely  upon  the  basis  of  a  rhythmic  affection  of  sensibility.  All 
other  differences,  such  as  inversion,  sentiment,  rhyme,  etc.,  are  subordinate. 

(/£)  For  unsuspecting  and  nai've  thought,  the  arrangement  of  the  words 
into  verses  and  stanzas  serves  as  an  important  prop  for  differentiating  the 
rhythms  of  prose  and  poetry.  The  removal  of  this  support  tends  in  the 
majority  of  cases  to  convert  the  rhythm  of  poetry  into  the  rhythm  of  prose, 
and  vice  versa. 

(<r)  The  rhythmic  instinct  is  an  affection  of  sensibility,  varying  to  some 
extent  with  individuals.  It  has  two  aspects — motor  and  sensory.  The 
test  concerns  only  the  former — the  rhythm  felt  by  the  subject  in  uttering 
and  not  in  hearing  uttered  a  series  of  words.  As  a  motor  phenomenon 
the  instinctive  perception  of  the  rhythmical  time  sense  is  subject  to  varia- 
tions in  the  immediacy  of  response  and  in  the  universality  of  manifestation. 
This  is  most  obviously  dependent  upon  the  degree  of  development  of  the 
power  of  coordinating  time-units. 

We  begin  now  the  detailed  examination  of  the  quantitative  determina- 
tion of  the  various  groups  of  recurrences.  The  verse  intervals  will  most 
conveniently  be  dealt  with  first. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  65 

C.   Verse  intervals. 

The  term  verse  is  used  in  this  discussion  as  synonymous  with  a  line  of 
poetry.  The  verse  interval  signifies  the  interval  of  sound  which  consti- 
tutes a  run-on  or  end-stopped  line  of  poetry.  It  is  the  time  required  in 
speaking  to  pass  from  the  first  to  the  last  sound  of  the  line. 

The  measurements  are  made  from  the  beginning  of  the  first  to  the  end 
of  the  last  sound  of  the  verse.  The  pauses  at  the  end  of  the  verses  are 
not  included  in  the  measurements.  Hence  the  determinations  yield  a 
measure  of  the  length  and  inequality  of  the  verses  only. 


TABLE  VIII. 

(  Poetry.  ) 

Subject. 

a 

P 

I 

a 

e                 c 

n 

J.  W.  R. 

2.20 

0.36 

0.15 

+  3-18 
-1.56             + 

32 

E.  W.  S. 

I-I5 

0.09 

0.07 

H-I-39 
—  0.89 

36 

A.  D.  B.A 

2.41 

0.30 

O.I  2 

f    C\  I 

6 

—  1.91 

W.  W. 

2.95 

o-45 

0.15 

+  4.04               , 
-I.87 

18 

A.  R.  P. 

1-63 

0.21 

0.12 

4-  1-92          4 
—  1-35 

4 

H.  0. 

2.05 

O.I2 

0.05 

+  2.25 
-1.67 

8 

O.  S. 

1.87 

0.  12 

O.O6 

+  2.12 

7 

—  1-53 

Av. 

2.05 

0.23 

O.  IO 

TABLE  IX. 
(  Pvetry  read  as  prose.  ) 


Subject. 

a 

P 

£ 

a 

c          n 

'J.  M.  T. 

4.14 

0.50 

0.12 

+        5 

C.  O. 

3-92 

0.30 

O.O7 

+        5 

W.  C. 

1.74 

0.13 

O.O7 

—        8 

S. 

1.66 

0.12 

0.07 

—        8 

Av. 

2.86 

0.26 

0.08 

TABLE  X. 
( Poetry  read  as  poetry.  ) 

' 


Subject. 


J.  M.  T. 

4.62 

o-55 

O.I  I 

+        5 

C.  O. 

3-84 

0.24 

0.06 

+        5 

W.  C. 

1.92 

0.23 

0.  12 

—        8 

S. 

2-39 

0.26 

O.  IO 

+         8 

Av. 

3-18 

0.32 

O.O9 

66  J.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

TABLE  XI. 
( Prose  read  as  poetry. ) 

Subject.  a  p  en 

S.  I.          2.85         0.27         0.09          -f-         4 
O.  E.  S.          3.53         0.31         0.08  4 

Av.          3.16         0.29         0.08 

TAPLE  XII. 
{Summary  of  TABLES  VIII.,  ix.,  and  x.,  poetry. ) 

Table.  a  -b  — 


a 

VIII. 

2.05 

0.23 

o.  10 

IX. 

2.86 

0.26 

0.08 

X. 

3.18 

0.32 

0.09 

Av. 

2.69 

0.27 

0.09 

Unit  of  measurement,  Is.  -,  relative  immediate  probable  error. 

a,  average  duration. 

,.  e.  extreme  intervals. 

p,  immediate  probable  error. 

c,  character  of  greater  extreme. 

These  observations  are  based  upon  a  study  of  163  verses,  various  as 
to  length  and  structure. 

Extreme  intervals. — The  longest  interval  among  the  in  verses  is  5.01", 
4th  verse,  record  of  J.  M.  T.;  the  shortest  o.89s,  Table  VIII. ,  E.  W.  S.; 
a  range  of  4. 1 2".  This  is  applicable  to  verse  intervals,  similarly  composed, 
in  general,  presupposing  that  the  figures  fairly  well  represent  the  extremes. 

Character  of  extreme  intervals. — Column  c  of  Tables  VIII. ,  IX.  and  X. 
furnishes  the  following  data  bearing  upon  the  nature  of  the  largest  extreme 
deviation  among  individual  verses :  60  per  cent,  are  extremes  of  excess, 
40  per  cent,  of  deficiency,  and  o  per  cent,  of  equality.  The  tendency 
is  thus  to  cause  the  longest  individual  deviation  to  vary  more  than  the 
shortest  from  the  length  of  the  average. 

Average  duration. — (i)  For  the  series.  The  average  for  the  series  of 
163  intervals  is  2.69'.  For  the  series  of  records  of  prose  read  as  poetry 
it  is  3.16". 

(2)  For  the  sets.  The  shortest  average  of  any  set  of  records  is  2.05", 
Table  VIII. ,  various  types  of  scansion;  the  longest,  3.18",  Table  X., 
poetry  read  as  poetry,  making  a  range  of  i .  1 3"  for  the  average  verse  in- 
tervals of  the  different  sets  of  records. 

The  average  in  the  set  of  records  where  poetry  was  read  as  poetry  is 
0.32"  longer  than  in  the  records  where  poetry  was  read  as  prose. 

The  average  in  the  set  of  records  where  prose  was  read  as  poetry  is 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  67 

o.o4s  longer  than  the  average  of  Tables  IX.  and  X.  (test  records),  and 
o.ii8  longer  than  in  the  set  of  records  of  Table  VIII.  (poetry). 

(3)  For  the  records. — The  longest  average  for  any  record  is  4.62*,  J. 
M.  T.,  Table  X.;  the  shortest,  1.15",  E.  W.  S.,  Table  VIII.;  a  range  of 
3.47".  These  figures  presumably  represent  the  time  limits  within  which 
the  average  verse  interval,  similarly  composed,  of  any  reciter  will  fall. 

The  range  for  different  records  appears  to  be  nearly  three  times  larger 
than  the  range  for  different  sets  of  records ;  and  the  range  of  the  indi- 
vidual verses  is  about  1.29  times  the  range  existing  between  the  average 
intervals  of  different  records. 

Relative  inequality. — (i)  For  the  series.  The  inequality  for  the  series 
of  poetry  is  9  %  of  the  average  duration  of  the  intervals,  and  for  prose, 
8  %. 

(2)  For  the  sets. — The  highest  percentage  is  10  %,  Table  VIII.,  types 
of  scanned  poetry ;  the  lowest,  8  % ,  poetry  read  as  prose,  and  prose  read 
as  poetry;  a  range  of  only  2  %. 

(3)  For  the  records. — The  highest  percentage  among  the  individual 
records  is  15  % ,  W.  W.  and  J.  W.  R ;   the  lowest,  5  <fc.     This  gives  a 
range  at   10  %    for  different  records.      Every  subject  was  slightly   more 
regular  in  reading  the  poetry  as  prose  than  as  poetry.     The  highest  differ- 
ence between  the  regularity  of  the  two  records  of  the  same  subject  is  0.05 
(W.  C.)  ;  the  lowest,  .01  (J.  M.  T.  and  C.  O.). 

Importance  attaching  to  the  duration  of  the  verse  interval. — The  verse 
is  the  longest  interval  with  which  these  measurements  are  concerned  ; 
hence  the  relevancy  of  the  following  remarks. 

The  interest  that  attaches  to  the  length  of  the  verse-group  arises 
chiefly  from  a  consideration  of  the  span  of  the  rhythmic  time  sense. 
How  long  a  period  is  consciousness  capable  of  rhythmizing  ?  How  short 
or  how  long  must  the  unit  be  to  enable  the  mind  to  coordinate  it  with 
other  units  of  the  same  kind  ? 

GURNEY  1  holds  that  the  most  highly  developed  rhythmic  sense  can 
take  in  no  more  than  a  "small  group";  and  SiEVERS2  and  SCHMIDT/ 
equally  vague,  "strictly  limit"  the  length  of  the  sentence  so  that  the 
time  occupied  in  reading  it  may  constitute  a  rhythmical  whole.  BOLTON  * 
concludes  from  experiments  on  subjective  rhythmisation  that  there  is  a 
correspondence  between  the  average  time  of  a  rhythmical  unit,  no  matter 

1  GURNEY,  The  Power  of  Sound,  127,  London  1880. 

2  SIEVERS,  Grundztige  der  Phonetik,  4.  AufL,  218,  Leipzig  1893. 

3  SCHMIDT,  Introduction  to  the  Rhythmic  and   Metric  of  the  Classical  Languages, 
79ff.,  Boston  1878. 

4  BOLTON,  Rhythm,  Am.  Jour.  Psych.,  VI  145-238. 


68  /.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

what  the  form,  and  the  normal  wave  of  attention.  The  rate  of  speed 
determined  the  form,  or  the  number  of  the  components  (8,  6,  4,  or  2), 
of  the  group.  No  matter  what  the  number,  within  certain  limits,  of  the 
impressions,  the  duration  of  the  group  remained  relatively  the  same, 
about  is.  He  gives  1.5"  as  the  upper  limit. 

It  seemed  that  the  natural  period  of  attention  exercised  a  regulative 
influence  upon,  and  definitely  limited  the  span  of,  the  groups. 

LANGE1  found  that  the  periodicities  of  the  maxima  and  minima  of 
attention  for  acoustic  sensations  varied  from  3.5  to  4.0";  for  optic,  from 
3.0  to  3. 4s ;  and  for  electrical  cutaneous,  from  2.5  to  3.0". 

STEVENS2  posits  a  time  interval  between  0.53"  and  0.87%  which  is 
capable  of  being  reproduced  with  the  greatest  accuracy.  A  plus  interval 
results  in  a  plus  error;  and  a  minus  in  a  minus  error.  JOHNSON, 3  how- 
ever, experimenting  on  practice  and  habit,  concludes  that  there  is  no 
"  indifference  point "  from  which  variations  do  not  occur. 

DiETZE4  reports  that  the  subject  of  his  experiments  in  rhythm  was  in- 
capable of  grouping  the  impressions  after  the  period  had  reached  4.25'. 

Other  experiments  have  given  the  following  results :  for  the  MASSON 
disc,  an  average  period  of5  3.5"  (with  average  variation  of  0.3"),  and 
of  about  5  or  6s6  (with  possible  variation  from  6  to  27s7),  the  oscillation 
having  been  found  most  rapid8  with  a  certain  difference  between  the 
grayness  of  the  disc  and  the  ring ;  for  voluntary  effort,9  a  period  of  three- 
fourths  of  a  second,  attended  by  a  large  fluctuation  and  recovery ;  and 
for  subjective  rhythmisation  of  sounds,  the  "lower  limit"10  of  the  inter- 
vals has  been  placed  at  less  than  2s ;  others  give  a  limit  of  less  than  0.4s111 
and  o.5s12,  and  of  more  than  i.os.13 

1  LANGE,  Beitrdge  zur  Theorie  der  sinnlichen  Aufnierksarnkeit  und  der  activen  ap- 
perception, Philos.  Studien,  1888  IV  404. 

2  STEVENS,  On  the  time  sense,  Mind,  1886  X  394. 

3  JOHNSON,  Researches  in  practice  and  habit,  Stud.  Yale  Psych.  Lab.,  1898  VI  91. 

4  DIETZE,  Untersuchungen  tiber  den  Umfang  Jes  Bewusstseins  bei  regelmdssig  aufein- 
anderfolgenden  Schalleindriicken,  Philos.  Studien,  1885  II  383. 

5  PACE,  Zur  Frage  der  Schwankungen  der  Aufmerksamkeit  nach   Versuchen  mit  Mas- 
son 'sc hen  Scheiben,  Philos.  Studien,  1893  VIII  394. 

5TiTCHENER,  A  Primer  of  Psychology,  89,  New  York  1898. 
7TiTCHENER,  An  Outline  of  Psychology,  141,  New  York  1896. 

8MARBE,  Die  Schwankungen  der  Gesichtstmpjindungen,  Philos.  Studien,  1893  VIII 
615. 

9  SCRIPTURE,  The  New  Psychology,  125,  New  York  1897. 

1°  SMITH,  Philos.  Studien,  1900  XVI  282. 

^MEUMANN,  Philos.  Studien,  1894  X  302. 

12MARTius,  Philos.  Studien,  1891  VI  196. 

13TiTCHENER,  Experimental  Psychology,  I,  ii  340,  New  York  1901. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  69 

These  figures  indicate  :  ( i )  That,  while  the  differences  in  the  results 
of  experiments  may  be  partly  explained  by  differences  and  inconstancy 
in  the  amount  of  the  stimuli  and  in  the  physical  and  mental  conditions 
of  the  observers  (due  to  fatigue,  inattention,  irrelevant  movements,  sen- 
sations and  memory  images,  passive  or  active  attitude,  etc.),  the  natural 
period  of  attention  will  differ  for  the  different  senses  and  for  different 
individuals.  The  period  for  the  more  purely  sensory  (receptive)  waves 
may  also  differ  from  the  more  purely  motor  (voluntary)  waves  ;  and  those 
of  involuntary  subjective  grouping  from  those  of  voluntary  grouping. 

(2)  That  the  span  of  the  rhythmic  sense  is  definitely  limited  for  each 
individual,  though  we  do  not  yet  know  its  precise  upper  or  lower  limits, 
nor  how  it  differs  in  voluntary  and  involuntary  subjective  rhythmisation, 
in   its  sensory  and  motor  aspects,   nor  its  dependence  on   the  psycho- 
physical  conditions  and  age  of  the  individual. 

(3)  That  the  regularity  of  intervals  will  be  greater  for  those  that  fall 
within   the  span  than  for  those  that   do  not.     This  will  be  illustrated 
presently. 

Rhythmical  signification  of  irregularity  of  intervals. — The  definition  of 
rhythm  entails  a  limiting  conception,  as  regards  both  the  span  and  regu- 
ularity  of  intervals.  What  does  the  concept  of  rhythm  require  ?  Abso- 
lute or  relative  conformity  to  a  standard  ?  How  great  a  variation  may 
intervals  admit  of  without  becoming  unrhythmical,  or  non-periodic  ? 

A  series  of  intervals  of  an  average  duration  of  4.62s  (J.M.T. )  mani- 
festly will  admit  of  more  absolute  variation  than  one  of  1.15"  (E.W.S. ). 
Hence  the  amount  of  variation  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  average 
duration  (the  relative  immediate  probable  error)  yields  the  index  of 
regularity.  How  small  must  this  be  to  preserve  the  rhythmical  unity  of 
intervals  ? 

This  question  emphasizes  the  distinction  between  hap-hazard  recur- 
rences and  strict  periodicities — between  coordinated  (that  is,  rhythmical) 
sequences,  and  uncoordinated  (that  is,  unrhythmical)  sequences.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  subsume  all  recurrences1  of  maxima  and  minima,  all  repeti- 
tious undulations  and  oscillations,  under  the  concept  of  rhythm,  and 
treat  literary,  social,  geological,  et  aL,  phenomena  as  rhythmical.  Prior 
to  legitimately  making  such  sweeping  subsumptions  a  measure  or  limit  to 
the  irregularity  for  any  series  of  occurrences  must  first  be  adopted.  This 
involves  the  adoption  of  a  criterion  of  irregularity. 

It  has  been  established,  by  facts  admitting  of  profuse  illustration,*  that 
things  come  and  go  in  waves  and  periods ;  that  all  motion  is  oscillatory 

1  SPENCER,  First  Principles,  X,  The  Rhythm  of  Motion,  New  York  1883. 
2FisKE,  Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy,  II. 


70  J.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

and  not  uniform,  either  in  the  sense  of  continuing  at  precisely  the  same 
rate  of  motion,  or  invariably  in  the  same  direction.  But  undulations  that 
are  not  well  coordinated  periodicities  are  mere  recurrences. 

The  limit  of  irregularity  cannot  be  fixed  a  priori.  It  may  be  deter- 
mined by  taking  an  easily  rhythmisable  series  of  intervals  and  increasing 
the  inequality  until  the  subject  is  incapable  of  rhythmising  them.  This 
practical  test  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  the  feeling  of  rhythm  is  non- 
existent for  me,  until  it  becomes  an  affection  of  my  sensibility.  The  only 
rhythm  which  can  become  an  object  of  direct  experience  is  that  of  a  suc- 
cession of  psychoses.  Hence  the  ultimate  criterion  is  to  be  found  in  the 
sensibility  of  beings  rhythmically  constituted. 

In  the  present  investigation  the  limits  may  be  approximately  deter- 
mined in  units  of  time  by  ascertaining  the  average  amount  of  inequality  of 
those  records  the  intervals  of  which  the  ear  is  incapable  of  coordinating. 

Each  record  of  Table  VIII.  was  listened  to  a  number  of  times,  and  the 
attempt  made  to  coordinate  the  sequences  of  impressions  representing  the 
verses.  The  reproducing  speed  was  relatively  the  same  as  the  recording 
speed.  Appeal  was  then  made,  where  the  rhythm  was  obscure,  to  the 
motor  aspect  of  the  rhythmical  sense. 

With  reference  to  the  more  purely  motor  aspect  of  the  attempted  group- 
ing, it  was  difficult  to  impart  a  very  distinct  unity  to  the  verses  of  the  J. 
W.  R.  and  A.  D.  B.  records,  unless  the  lines  were  repeated  rapidly  and 
the  terminal  pauses  were  considerably  prolonged.  The  rhythm  then  be- 
came marked.  The  verses  of  the  W.  W.  record  with  this  device,  were 
capable  of  being  only  vaguely  coordinated  and  grasped  as  totalities. 
These  verses  contain  twelve  syllables. 

Listening  to  the  records  on  the  phonograph,  it  was  difficult  to  co- 
ordinate, and  grasp  as  rhythmical  wholes,  several  of  the  verses  of  the 
J.  W.  R.,  and  most  of  the  W.  W.  record.  In  the  A.  D.  B.  records  it 
was  possible  to  feel  a  certain  verse  rhythm ;  in  the  A.  R.  P.  record,  it 
was  more  distinct ;  in  the  three  remaining  records  it  was  marked,  espe- 
cially in  the  H.  O.  and  in  the  last  stanza  of  the  E.  W.  S.  record.  In 
general,  other  things  being  equal,  the  shorter  verses  were  more  unitary 
and  rhythmical. 

Bearing  upon  the  limit  of  inequality  and  span  of  the  rhythmic  sensibility. 
— These  results  suggest  that  when  the  deviation  rises  to  a  fraction  of  1 5  % 
of  the  length  of  the  whole  interval,  the  mind  finds  it  hard  to  rhythmise 
the  impressions ;  when  the  fraction  is  1 2  %  the  rhythm  is  still  a  little 
vague ;  and  when  it  is  7  %  the  intervals  are  easily  coordinated.  When 
the  fraction  is  smaller,  of  course,  the  rhythm  becomes  increasingly  distinct. 

As  regards  units  of  time,  the  rhythm  of  the  verse  intervals  was  almost 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  71 

destroyed  when  the  deviation  reached  a  third  of  a  second ;  it  was  some- 
what disturbed  when  it  reached  a  fifth  of  a  second  ;  and  when  it  was  about 
one-tenth  of  a  second,  it  was  well  preserved. 

From  the  measurements  of  the  irregularity  of  the  verse  intervals,  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  the  maximum  length  of  an  interval  that  can  be 
synthesized  into  a  rhythmical  whole.  The  longest  span  where  the  rhythm 
was  felt,  though  vaguely,  was  2.41";  except  in  the  Persian  record,  where 
the  line  meter  rhythm  was  very  distinctly  felt  and  the  intervals  averaged 
2.45s.  Here  the  absolute  irregularity  and  relative  irregularity  reached  the 
low  figures  of  o.o6s  and  0.02  respectively.  That  the  Persian  line  group 
should  manifest  a  relatively  high  degree  of  regularity  was  to  be  expected 
apriori  from  the  Persian  theory  of  poetry.  In  Japanese  poetry,  which 
theoretically  follows  the  same  law  with  respect  to  its  meter,  the  irregularity 
is  0.06"  for  J.  K.  (av.  length  of  verses  =  o.878)and  0.09"  for  I.  M.  (av.= 
0.95"),  and  the  fraction  is  0.07  and  0.09  respectively.  While,  therefore, 
the  verse  meter  of  both  these  languages  conforms  with  the  requirements,  as 
respects  degree  of  regularity,  of  rhythm,  the  records  show  that  English 
poetry,  which  theoretically  does  not  recognize  the  verse  meter,  except  as 
secondary,  affords  specimens  which  surpass  the  Japanese  in  regularity  and 
which,  if  we  include  the  record  of  mechanical  scansion  without  regulative 
concomitant  where  the  figures  are  o.o6s  and  0.03,  are  practically  equal  to 
the  Persian.  No  other  intervals  in  the  records  of  the  oriental  languages 
are  equal  to  the  regularity  of  the  verse  intervals.  (In  the  Persian  record 
the  expiration  and  the  verse  intervals  coincide. )  In  English  the  simple 
centroid  intervals  are  frequently  as  regular. 

The  long  limit  of  the  rhythmic  sense  for  verse  intervals,  themselves 
containing  minor  intervals  (rhythms),  probably  does  not  generally  ex- 
ceed two  and  a  half  seconds.  Perhaps  we  may  say  that  those  of  less 
than  one  and  three-fourths  of  a  second  in  length  (with  inter-verse  pauses 
of  average  length)  give  for  most  subjects  the  best  results  rhythmically 
(1.67*  =  average  length  of  verses  in  the  most  rhythmical  records,  viz., 
E.  W.  S.,  H.  O.,  O.  S.,  A.  R.  P.,  J.  K.,  I.  M.  and  K.  H.  K.).  This 
figure  is  considerably  above  MEUMANN'S,  MARTIUS'S  and  TITCHENER'S 
results,  and  slightly  below  SMITH'S,  for  subjective  accentuation  ;  consid- 
erably above  SCRIPTURE'S  results  for  volitions,  and  below  PACE'S,  LANGE'S 
and  TITCHENER'S  results  for  the  fluctuation  of  sensations.  Hence  the 
results  of  this  experiment  may  apply  only  to  verse  intervals.  This  span 
should  not  be  identified  offhand  with  the  spans  (a)  between  the  oscilla- 
tions of  attention  for  sensations,  memory-images,  illusions  and  simple 
voluntary  efforts,  and  (<£)  between  the  accents  in  voluntary  and  involun- 
tary subjective  rhythmisation. 


72  J.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

Results. — The  verse  interval  rarely  exceeds  5"  in  length,  nor  does  it  fall 
much  below  0.89"  (a  range  of  a  little  over  4s). 

About  60  per  cent,  of  the  verse  intervals  that  deviate  most  from  the 
length  of  the  average  are  extremes  of  excess.  The  balance  are  extremes 
of  deficiency. 

The  average  duration  of  a  verse  interval  is  about  2.69s.  ^  varies 
according  to  the  character  of  the  line  and  will  lie  for  a  given  number  of 
reciters,  somewhere  between  approximately  2.05"  and  4.62",  a  range  of 

3-47s- 

In  units  of  time  the  verse  intervals  of  a  given  number  of  recited  verses 
will  vary  from  the  length  of  the  average  by  about  0.27". 

The  range  of  irregularity  existing  between  a  given  number  of  recited 
verses  of  a  given  number  of  subjects  may  be  approximately  0.46*  (from 
o.o99  to  °-558)- 

As  a  fraction  of  the  average,  the  irregularity  of  a  given  number  of 
recited  verses  of  a  given  number  of  subjects  will  be  about  9%;  and  the 
range  about  10%  (from  5%  to  15%). 

The  regularity  is  never  precisely  the  same  for  different  records  of  the 
same  person.  The  difference  will  rise  to  about  5%. 

Whenever  the  amount  of  irregularity  exceeds  1 5  per  cent,  of  the  average 
duration,  the  mind  finds  it  hard  to  rhythmise  the  series.  The  rhythm  is 
obscure.  Apparently  when  the  percentage  does  not  rise  above  10%,  the 
rhythm  is  fairly  well  preserved. 

If  we  accept,  provisionally,  10  per  cent,  of  deviation  as  the  limit  of 
allowable  inequality  in  good  rhythm,  59  per  cent,  of  the  records  of  verse 
intervals  are  rhythmical  and  41  per  cent,  are  not. 

The  nature  of  the  unity  of  the  verse  interval. — Assuming  that  a 
spoken  line  of  poetry  does  not  exceed  the  limits  of  the  grasp  of  the 
rhythmic  sense,  and  that  it  isx rhythmically  coordinated  with  other  lines, 
it  will  stand  forth  as  a  unity  in  consciousness.  Every  verse  is  so  far  forth 
an  absolute  unity,  whether  its  components  are  homogeneous  or  not,  /.  e . , 
made  up  entirely  of  sounds,  or  predominantly  of  sounds  and  partly  of 
pauses.  Psychologically  a  rhythmical  line  is  a  mental  synthesis,  regard- 
less of  its  structure. 

As  a  physical  event,  however,  to  constitute  a  unity  the  elements  of 
speech  must  make  an  uninterrupted  continuum.  The  unity  of  a  verse  is 
coterminous  with  homogeneity  of  process.  The  sounds  constitute  one 
order  of  homogeneity ;  the  pauses,  another.  Whenever  the  two  inter- 
mingle the  spoken  verse  physically  becomes  heterogeneous,  i.  e.,  non- 
unitary.  Hence  to  be  a  physical,  or  physiological,  unity,  a  verse  must 
contain  no  sectional  pauses.  Such  a  verse  unity,  however,  would,  if 


°F 
Researches  on  the  rhythm  of 


frequently  repeated,  become  thread-bare  and  monotonous,  although  it 
would  result  in  the  best  quality*of  rhythm. 

Examples  of  verse  intervals,  that  are  physically  homogeneous  unities, 
maybe  seen  by  referring  to  the  I.  M.,  J.  K.,  K.  H.  K.,  E.  W.  S.  and 
H.  O.  records  of  V.,  B,  above. 

A  physically  homogeneous  unity  will  coincide  with  a  psychological 
unity  when  its  limits  are  so  coordinated  as  to  coincide  with  the  rhythmic 
beats  of  the  latter. 

The  principles  of  the  rhythmical  coordination  of  verse  intervals. — The 
principle  according  to  which  the  records  were  differentiated  as  rhyth- 
mical and  non-rhythmical,  was  that  of  time-coordination.  The  inter- 
vals formed  a  series  of  rhythmical  intervals  only  provided  the  law  of 
rhythm,  as  regards  amount  of  inequality  and  length  of  span  was  observed. 
This  principle,  however,  was  found  incapable  of  comprehending  a  com- 
plete explanation  of  the  totality  of  the  experience.  To  account  fully  for 
all  cases  of  verse  rhythm,  it  is  necessary  to  invoke  another  principle, — 
that  of  emphasis.  This  is  best  exemplified  in  sing-song. 

6.  Sing-song  scansion. — The  table  of  measurements  justifies  the  belief 
that  the  verses  of  the  O.  S.  record  (reading  scansion)  should  give  rise  to 
the  most  distinct  feeling  of  rhythmical  unities.  This  is  counter  to  the 
judgment  of  the  ear,  however,  which  found  it  easiest  to  grasp  and  retain 
in  consciousness  as  rhythmical  unities  the  first  three  verses,  respectively, 
of  the  two  stanzas  of  the  H.  O.  record,  and  the  last  stanza  of  the  E.  W. 
S.  record.  These  appeared  completely  unified  sequences,  not  because  the 
coordination  impressed  the  ear  as  perfect,  but  because  the  principle  of 
emphasis  rendered  the  unity  distinct  in  consciousness. 

This  unifying  principle  is  more  or  less  operative  in  all  the  records, 
but  in  the  record  of  sing-song  it  follows  a  unique  law,  which  may  be 
expressed  as  an  exact  correspondence  line  for  line,  of  certain  centroids, 
as  regards  distribution  and  degree  of  intensity.  When  the  major  cen- 
troids are  correlated  vertically, — that  is,  placed  on  the  numerically  cor- 
respondent syllables  of  each  line — the  type  of  scansion  differs  from  read- 
ing, doggerel  and  routine  scansion,  which  at  their  best,  merely  attain  a 
maximum  regularity,  in  its  strict  observance  of  this  law  of  emphasis.  This 
species  of  scansion  we  may  designate  sing-song.  It  is  this  which  pro- 
duces the  most  vivid  impression  of  verse  unities.  No  verse  rhythm  can, 
psychologically  considered,  be  compared  with  the  sing-song. 

To  illustrate  :  in  the  E.  W.  S.  record  (last  stanza),  the  beginning  of 
every  line  received  a  specially  strong  accent  upon  the  corresponding  syl- 
lables. The  accentuation  was  uniformly  of  the  third  degree,  except  in  the 
last  line.  The  stress  of  the  last  syllables  of  the  verses,  was  uniformly  sub- 


74  /   E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

ordinated  to  the  stress  of  the  first  syllables.  The  intervening  syllables, 
with  one  exception,  were  subordinate  to  those  at  the  end.  The  predomi- 
nant elements  of  the  centroids  were  intensity  for  those  at  the  close,  and 
pitch  and  intensity  for  those  at  the  beginning  of  the  lines. 

In  the  H.  O.  record  the  same  general  law  is  exhibited.  The  second 
degree  centroid  was  placed,  however,  on  the  last  syllable  but  one.  This 
did  not  affect  the  sing-song  swing.  This  record  also  differed  in  having 
a  sectional  pause  between  the  two  chief  centroids.  In  both,  however,  the 
pauses  at  the  end  of  the  verses  served  to  support  the  unity  of  the  lines. 

Conclusions. — These  are  suggested  by  the  foregoing.  Sing-song  scan- 
sion is  peculiar  in  being  largely  a  matter  of  verse  interval  rhythm. 

This  peculiarity  consists  (a)  in  paying  a  strict  regard  to  the  temporal 
coordination  of  the  intervals  and  (b)  in  observing  a  law  of  distribution 
and  subordination  of  centroids.  In  respect  to  distribution,  the  law  seems 
to  require  two  strong  centroids  to  the  verse,  placed  on  the  corresponding 
syllables  of  each  line,  the  one  near  the  beginning,  the  other  near  the  close. 
Hence  in  the  distribution  of  the  sing-song  centroids,  there  is  a  balanced 
line  arrangement. 

In  respect  to  subordination,  there  is  a  like  correlated  arrangement,  line 
for  line.  But  in  each  line,  the  centroids  are  unevenly  balanced.  It 
seems  to  open  with  a  very  strong  explosion  of  the  cords  in  which  the  ele- 
ment of  pitch  is  prominent,  is  followed  by  a  weak  one  and  ends  up  with  a 
fairly  strong  explosion  in  which  the  element  of  pitch  is  less  prominent. 
For  different  speakers  the  distribution  of  the  second  and  third  degree 
centroids  may  be  reversed. 

It  has  been  customary  to  explain  the  peculiarity  of  sing-song  scansion 
as  merely  a  phenomenon  of  exact  rhythm.1  To  fully  account  for  it  as  an 
occurrence  in  consciousness,  however,  a  twofold  principle  needs  be  in- 
voked. 

Logical  or  reading  scansion  and  doggerel  and  routine  scansion  observe 
no  such  principle,  and  the  rhythm  of  the  centroid  intervals  (cf.  V.,  F., 
below)  in  reading  scansion  is  almost  invariably,  and  in  doggerel  scansion 
generally,  less  regular.  Routine  has  the  presumption  of  greater  regularity 
than  either  doggerel  or  sing-song  scansion,  as  may  be  seen  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  records. 

Sing-song  scansion  might  figuratively  be  called  pendulum -swing  scan- 
sion, where  the  height  of  the  two  swings  differ  somewhat,  and  routine  or 
mechanical  scansion,  metronome  scansion,  where  the  strength  or  reach  of 
the  two  swings  is  equal.  In  the  latter  kind,  where  the  motive  is  merely 
to  rigorously  coordinate  the  distances  between  centroids,  the  function  of 

1  ELLIS,  The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  London  1874. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  75 

the  sectional  and  terminal  pauses  becomes  compensatory.     They  must  be 
strictly  limited. 

Doggerel  scansion  is  the  most  nearly  like  reading  scansion,  which  is 
rhythmically  free.  The  latter  differs  from  the  former  in  that  it  pays  more 
heed  to  the  logic  or  thought  contained  in  the  verses.  When  the  logical 
and  metrical  accents  coincide  it  tends  to  become  doggerel.  The  two  often 
coincide,  as  is  instanced  by  the  first  six  stanzas  of  the  E.  W.  S.,  and  the 
stanza  of  the  A.  R.  P.  records. 

D.    Expiration  {or  sound)   intervals. 

i.  Explanation. — SWEET'S  statement  that  the  only  divisions  which  are 
actually  made  in  language  are  those  into  ' '  breath  groups, ' '  each  group 
forming  a  closed  system,  in  which,  contrary  to  general  opinion,  there  is 
no  pause,  as  it  stands,  vague  and  unqualified,  must  be  rejected.  It  does, 
however,  express  an  important  truth  and  may,  with  proper  limitations,  be 
accepted. 

It  is  obvious  that  speech,  as  a  physiological  process,  cannot  continue 
indefinitely  so  as  to  form  a  perfect  continuum.  The  vocal  cords  are  in- 
capacitated from  functioning  in  an  unbroken  continuity,  partly  because 
such  activity  is  antagonistic  to  the  necessary  process  of  alternate  waste 
and  repair,  partly  because  the  capacity  of  the  air  supply  in  the  lungs  is 
definitely  limited  for  each  individual,  and  partly  because  the  specific  func- 
tion of  speech,  the  expression  of  thought,  could  not  be  thus  subserved. 
Hence  the  need  of  making  divisions  into  sounds  and  pauses  is  inescapable. 

In  the  sense,  therefore,  of  a  succession  of  physical  or  physiological 
processes  in  time,  the  only  speech  divisions  are  those  into  filled  and 
vacant  groups.  These  represent  periods  of  expiration  and  inhalation. 
While  physiologically  they  are  indisputably  the  only  divisions  of  speech, 
psychologically,  other  divisions  obtain. 

It  is  both  true  and  false  that  within  each  expiration  group  no  gaps 
occur.  In  the  sense  in  which  the  word  silence  is  used  on  p.  35  above,  it 
is  false.  It  has  been  shown  that  practically  every  sound  is  separated  from 
every  other  by  a  gap,  which,  however,  is  generally  so  minute  as  to  be 
imperceptible  by  the  naked  ear.  The  average  duration  is  only  o.io". 
Hence,  if  by  pauses  is  not  meant  the  necessary  silences  which  intervene 
between  separate  sounds,  but  those  gaps  which,  in  the  main  purposeful, 
separate  groups  of  words  by  silences  other  than  those  involved  in  the 
mere  production  of  a  series  of  sounds,  it  is  true  that  the  intervals  in 
question  constitute  a  closed  system. 

By  expiration  interval,  then,  is  indicated  a  sequence  of  sounds  limited 
by  pauses.  The  following  tables  give  the  results  of  the  measurement  of 


76  J.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

these  intervals.  The  measurements  extend  through  the  entire  length  of 
the  sequences.  Only  the  lengths  of  the  different  sound  intervals  are 
given  :  not  the  sound  intervals  and  pauses  taken  together.  Every  sound 
interval  is  invariably  convertible  into  an  expiration  interval,  since  the 
outgoing  of  breath  is  the  indispensable  condition  of  producing  vocal 
sounds.  The  pause  intervals,  contrariwise,  are  not  invariably  convertible 
into  inhalation  intervals.  It  requires  less  time  to  inhale  a  quantity  of  air 
than  it  takes  to  consume  it  in  speaking.  And  oftentimes  the  quantity  in- 
haled is  so  oppressive  or  excessive  as  to  require  exhaling  during  the  pause 
interval,  as  is  frequently  seen  in  persons  of  a  nervous  disposition. 

2.     Tables  of  measurements  of  expiration  intervals. 

TABLE  XIII. 
(Poetry.} 


Subject. 

a 

P 

/- 
a 

e 

c          n 

J.  W.  R. 

2.60 

0.98 

0-37 

+  4-77 
—  0.48 

+         27 

E.  W.  S. 

1.18 

0.22 

0.18 

+  2.31 

—  0.41 

4-        35 

A.  D.  B.A 

0-75 

0.28 

o-37 

+  1-73 
—  0.14 

4-       i5 

A.  D.  B.B 

1.  00 

0-37 

0-37 

+  2.16 
—  0.25 

4-         8 

W.  W. 

i.  06 

0-37 

0-34 

-,  2.62 
—  o  18 

4-       38 

A.  R.  P. 

1.26 

0.45 

0-35 

4-1.90 

O.I2 

5 

J.  K. 

2.15 

0-35 

o.  16 

O                2 

I.  M. 

2-39 

o-33 

0.13 

0                2 

K.  H.  K. 

2-45 

0.06 

O.O2 

+  2.54 

4 

2.31 

H.  0. 

1.41 

0.30 

O.2I 

+  2.  02 

—  0.65 

ii 

0.  S. 

1.87 

O.I2 

0.06 

+  2.12 

T     CO 

7 

—  I-53 

E.  H.  T.A 

1.72 

0.87 

0.50 

4-3-45 
—  0-54 

4-          4 

E.  H.  T.B 

1.68 

O.I3 

o  07 

+  2.00 
-1.56 

4-         4 

Av. 

1.65 

0-37 

0.24 

- 

TABLE 

XIV. 

(  Prose.  ) 

Subject. 

a 

P 

I 

a 

e 

c           n 

G.  A.  A. 

1-37 

0.42 

0.30 

+  3.00 
—  0.32 

+            21 

W.  L.  P. 

1.25 

0.19 

0.15 

4-1-90 

—  0.12 

+            20 

C.  0.  S. 

1.50 

0.72 

0.48 

4-3-42 
—  0.15 

4-       21 

Av. 

i-37 

o.44 

0.3I 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech. 


77 


TABLE  XV. 
(  Poetry  read  as  prose.  ) 


Subject.  a 

C.  O.  0.93 

W.  C.  1.09 

s. 


Av. 


1. 12 

1.04 


0.36 

0.37 

0-39 
oTs7 


0.38 
o-33 
0-34 
o^35 


Subject.         a 

C.  O.         0.85 
W.  C.        0.90 


TABLE  XVI. 
(  Poetry  read  as  poetry. ) 

P 


S. 
Av. 


1.  08 


o-35 
0.32 
0.50 
o-39 


a 
0.41 

o-35 
0.40 
0.40 


+3-00 


+ 


Subject. 

G.  F.  A. 

B.  S.  G. 

Av. 


Subject. 

S.  I. 

O.  E.  S. 

Av. 


TABLE  XVII. 

{Poetry  read  as  prose  without  puuctuation  marks.) 
P 


1. 01 

0.90 
o-95 


/ 
0-37 
0.30 

°-33 


0.36        TO 

°-33    ±*;; 

0.34 


a 

.1.07 
1.40 
1.23 


TABLE  XVIII. 
(  Prose  read  as  poetry. ) 
/ 


0-34 
0.66 
0.50 


a 

0.31 
0.47 
o-39 


17 

12 

12 


n 
16 
16 


TABLE  XIX. 
(  Table  of  summaries  of  expiration  intervals  of  speech. ) 

Tables.  a  p 

XIII.  1.65         0.37         0.24 

XIV.  1.37        0.44        0.31 
XV.         1.04        0.37         0.35 


78  /.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 


XVI. 

0.94 

o-39 

0.40 

XVII. 

o-95 

0-33 

0-34 

XVIII. 

I  23 

0.50 

o.39 

Av. 

1.19 

0.40 

0-34 

Unit  of  measurement,  I';  a,  average  duration;  /,  immediate  probable  error; 
— ,  relative  immediate  probable  error ;  e,  extreme  intervals  ;  c,  character  of  greater 
extreme. 

3.    Observations. — The  study  is  based  on  362  measurements. 

Extreme  intervals. — Of  the  362  intervals  the  longest  is  4.77*;  the 
shortest,  0.12";  a  range  of  4.65s. 

Character  of  greater  extreme. — 72  per  cent,  of  the  intervals  which  devi- 
ate the  farthest  from  the  average  are  extremes  of  excess,  19  per  cent,  of 
deficiency,  and  8  per  cent,  are  equal.  The  tendency  in  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  cases  is  to  lengthen  unduly,  rather  than  shorten,  the  expira- 
tion intervals. 

Average  duration — (i)  For  the  series.  The  average  for  the  362  inter- 
vals is  1. 193. 

(2)  For  the  sets.     The  longest  average  of  any  set  of  records  is   1.65". 
Table   XIII. ,   poetry;    the   shortest,  0.94",   Table   XVI.,    poetry  read  as 
poetry.      This  gives  a  range  of  o.  7  Is. 

The  average  of  the  set  of  prose  records,  Table  XIV.,  is  1.3  7s.  This  is 
o.283  less  than  for  the  corresponding  set  of  records  of  poetry,  Table  XIII. 

The  set  for  poetry  read  as  prose  without  punctuation  marks,  Table 
XVIII. ,  affords  the  second  shortest  interval,  0.95".  It  is  o.ois  longer  than 
for  poetry  read  as  poetry.  The  number  of  intervals  is  about  the  same  in 
both  tables. 

The  reading  of  the  poetical  passage  as  prose,  Table  XV. ,  test  records, 
resulted  in  lengthening  the  interval.  The  difference  is  o.io8.  This  is  in 
disagreement  with  the  result  noted  above,  that  the  expiration  interval  in 
reading  poetry  is  longer  than  in  reading  prose.  The  discrepancy  may  be 
explained  by  the  circumstance  that  the  passage  when  read  as  prose  was 
unfamiliar  to  the  subject.  This  would  entail  a  retarded  utterance. 

The  intervals  of  the  test  records  where  prose  was  read  as  poetry,  Table 
XVIII. ,  are  longer  than  in  any  of  the  other  three  test  records. 

(3)  For  the  records. — The  highest  average  duration  of  any  single  record 
is  2.60",  J.  W.   R.,   Table  XIII. ,   reading  scansion;   the  lowest,    0.75"; 
Table  XIII.,  A.  D.  B.A,  poetry ;  a  range  of  1.85*.      The  range  for  the 
records  is  2.60  times  larger  than  for  the  sets ;   and  the  range  for  the  indi- 
vidual intervals  is  2.51  times  larger  than  for  the  records. 

The  greatest  difference  between  the  averages  of  two  different  records  of 
the  same  subject  is  o.i9s ;  the  smallest,  0.04" ;  a  range  of  o.  15*. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  79 

Regularity — ( i )  For  the  series.  The  average  inequality  for  the  series 
of  records  is  0.40".  This  is  34%  of  length  of  the  average. 

(2)  For  the  sets.  The  highest  degree  of  irregularity  is  40%,  Table 
XVI.,  poetry  read  as  poetry;  the  lowest,  24%,  Table  XIIL,  different 
types  of  scansion  of  poetry  ;  a  range  of  1 6  %  • 

In  units  of  time,  the  greatest  irregularity  is  0.50"  (Table  XVIII.)  ;  the 
lowest,  o.33s  (Table  XVII.)  ;  a  range  of  o.iy3. 

The  irregularity  was  5%  smaller  in  the  records  where  poetry  was 
read  as  prose  than  in  the  records  of  the  same  passages  read  as  poetry. 
The  regularity  for  poetry  read  as  prose  without  punctuation  marks  is 
greater  than  either ;  it  is  unexpectedly  high. 

The  regularity  for  the  records  of  scanned  poetry  is  noticeably  greater 
than  for  any  other  set. 

(  3  )  For  the  records.  — The  greatest  absolute  irregularity  of  any  individual 
record,  J.  W.  R.,  Table  XIIL,  poetry,  is  0.98",  or  over  one-third  of  the 
average  length  of  the  intervals ;  the  lowest,  ignoring  the  Persian  record 
where  the  verse  and  expiration  groups  are  coincident,  is  o.  12s,  O.  S.,  Table 
XIIL,  routine  scansion  ;  a  range  of  o.86s.  This  is  five  times  the  range 
existing  between  the  sets  of  records. 

The  highest  amount  of  relative  irregularity  is  50%  ;  the  lowest  6%  ;  a 
range  of  44  % .  This  range  is  2  ^  times  the  range  existing  between  the 
sets. 

In  the  selections  of  the  test  read  as  prose  and  poetry,  the  amount  of 
irregularity  is  higher,  both  absolutely  and  relatively,  for  the  poetic  ren- 
dering. This  is  at  variance  with  Tables  XIIL  and  XIV.  A  like  discrep- 
ancy was  noted  above  between  the  set  of  test  records  and  those  of  prose 
and  poetry.  The  discrepancy  calls  for  explanation.  May  we  assume  the 
existence  of  a  special  talent  for  reading  poetry,  distinct  from  the  ability 
to  properly  read  prose  ?  Some  persons  discourse  eloquently  on  scientific 
themes,  but  make  a  botch  of  reciting  poetry. 

The  greatest  difference  in  the  different  records  recited  by  the  same 
person  is  6%  ;  the  smallest,  2%  ;  a  range  of  4%,  which  is  exceedingly 
small. 

4.  Results. — The  length  of  the  expiration  interval  of  ordinary  speech 
may  be  presumed  to  lie  somewhere  within  the  limits  of  about  o.  12s 
and  4. 7  7s.  In  impassioned  oratory  the  upper  limit  will  evidently  be 
overreached ;  the  lower  limit  is  relatively  fixed  (average  unemphatic 
syllable  =  o.n8). 

About  72  per  cent,  of  the  expiration  intervals  of  speech  which 
deviate  the  farthest  from  the  normal  or  average  interval  are  extremes  of 
excess  ;  about  19  per  cent.,  of  deficiency  ;  and  about  8  per  cent,  are  equal. 


8o  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

The  length  of  the  average  expiration  interval  of  speech  will  be  approxi- 
mately iis. 

The  difference  in  the  length  of  the  average  expiration  intervals  of  or- 
dinary speech  of  different  speakers  is  limited  to  about  i.85s. 

As  between  the  length  of  the  average  expiration  interval  of  prose  and 
poetry,  the  evidence  suggests  that  the  interval  is  slightly  longer  in  the 
declamation  of  poetry.  The  explanation  suggested  is,  (a)  that  the  in- 
tervals in  poetry  tend  to  become  unities  coterminous  with  the  verses  (the 
average  verse  interval  is  about  2.26  times  longer  than  the  average  expira- 
tion interval)  ;  and  (b)  that  the  more  lyrical  and  impetuous  emotions  of 
poetic  diction  result  in  prolonging  the  intervals.  The  latter  circumstance 
should  obtain  equally  in  impassioned  prose. 

The  average  length  for  the  same  person  reciting  the  same  lines  on  dif- 
ferent occasions  is  not  the  same.  The  difference  varies  roughly  from  0.04* 
(smallest  difference)  to  0.19'  (largest  difference). 

The  inequality  in  the  length  of  successive  expiration  intervals  will  be 
equal  to  about  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  average. 

In  units  of  time,  the  range  in  the  inequality  of  the  expiration  inter- 
vals of  different  speakers  will  be  about  o.86s  (from  o.i2s  to  0.98*). 

As  a  fraction  of  the  average,  the  range  of  the  inequality  for  different 
speakers  will  be  about  44%  (from  6%  to  50%). 

The  regularity  for  the  same  person  reciting  the  same  passages  on  dif- 
ferent occasions  is  not  the  same.  It  varies  from  something  like  2% 
to  6%. 

As  between  prose  and  poetry,  the  evidence  suggests  that  the  regularity 
is  slightly  higher  for  the  latter. 

The  elimination  of  punctuation  marks  does  not  seem  to  increase  the 
irregularity. 

Accepting  provisionally  10  per  cent,  as  the  criterion,  the  coordination 
of  the  lengths  of  expiration  intervals  of  speech  is  rhythmical  in  12  per 
cent,  of  the  records. 

5.  Interpretation  of  results. — What  is  the  psychological  import  of  the 
above  results?  With  what  laws  of  mental  precedure  can,  for  example, 
the  brevity  of  the  expiration  group  be  correlated  ?  If  we  accept  as  true  the 
doctrine  of  the  periodic  character  of  attention,1  wre  find  here  a  fitting  illus- 
tration of  its  applicability  to  speech.  Attention,  subjectively  considered, 
is  detention  in  consciousness  of  sensations  and  other  psychical  phenomena 
that,  through  special  fixation,  have  been  exalted  to  a  high  degree  of  inten- 
sity, vividness  and  completeness.  But  this  process  of  fixating  the  mind  is 
of  the  nature  of  a  wave  or  pulsation  :  it  consists  in  an  alternation  of  max- 

1  LADD,  Psychology,  Descriptive  and  Explanatory,  71  fl,  New  York  1896. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  8 1 

imal  and  minimal  efforts.  The  period  of  these  attentive,  efforts  has  been 
variously  given  (cf.  VI. ,  C,  3,  above).  The  average  sound  group  easily 
falls  within  the  extremes.  Manifestly,  were  the  laws  of  attention  disre- 
garded in  the  expiration  intervals  of  speech,  the  result  would  be  a  special 
strain  upon  the  power  of  attention,  resulting  in  a  sacrifice  of  interest,  in 
fatigue  and  diminished  mental  grasp.  The  laws  of  mental  activity  seem 
to  demand  that  the  words  in  speaking  be  grouped  into  short  unities  that 
agree,  in  the  main,  with  the  ' '  unity  of  consciousness  ' ' ;  and  that  frequent, 
though  brief,  pauses  be  made  to  enable  the  mind  to  easily  grasp  and  syn- 
thesize this  manifold  of  sensation. 

All  this  is  important  as  affects  the  doctrine  of  conservation  of  psychical 
— not  speaking  now  of  physiological — energy.  The  mind  conserves  its 
energy  by  dividing  its  work  into  brief,  but  frequent  and  forceful,  efforts, 
and  by  introducing  brief  and  frequent,  rather  than  long  and  infrequent, 
rests.  This  demand  is  unconsciously  fulfilled  in  spoken  language.  The 
frequent  pauses  afford  momentary  opportunities  for  rest  for  both  speaker 
and  listener.  Hence  the  possibility  of  listening  attentively  to  a  long  dis- 
course. .  A  speaker  who  easily  tires  himself  and  his  audience,  and  fails  to 
rise  to  the  full  measure  of  his  possibilities,  will  find  here,  it  would  seem, 
a  suggestion. 

It  appears  from  our  tables  that  the  average  duration  of  the  intervals  is 
less  than  our  average  wave  of  attention  (i  ^s).  This  suggests  an  explana- 
tion of  the  phenomenon  that  the  extremes  of  excess  are  vastly  more 
numerous  than  the  extremes  of  deficiency.  On  this  supposition,  we  should 
expect  to  find,  with  an  average  that  is  rather  in  excess  of  the  wave  of 
attention,  a  greater  number  of  minus  extremes.  The  theory  is  suggestive, 
and  is  offered  as  an  explanatory  hypothesis  that  seems  plausible  and  con- 
sistent with  known  laws  of  mental  functioning. 

The  high  degree  of  irregularity  exhibited  in  the  expiration  intervals 
makes  it  evident  that  a  supplementary  principle  is  needed  to  complete  the 
theory  advanced  above,  namely  the  principle  of  change  or  variety. 
While  the  laws  of  mental  behavior  require  the  duration  to  be  limited 
they  do  not  require  invariable  uniformity  of  length  within  the  limits. 
Such  uniformity  would  result  in  intolerable  monotony,  and  would  be  an- 
tagonistic of  the  essential  rhythm  of  speech,  the  centroid  rhythm.  Hence 
the  high  degree  of  inequality  displayed  in  the  expiration  intervals  may 
conduce  to  restive  and  pleasing  variety. 

The  numerical  relation  of  syllables  to  the  normal  and  maximal  expira- 
tion intervals  is  shown  in  VI.,  5,  below. 


82  /.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

E.     Vacant  intervals. 

i.  Explanation.  —A  vacant  interval  in  speech  is  the  sequence  which 
intervenes  between  the  adjacent  termini  of  two  consecutive  expiration 
intervals.  The  interval  is  entirely  void  of  sound.  In  contra  distinction 
to  the  gaps  which  separate  different  components  of  a  sound  or  expiration 
interval,  these  vacancies  separate  different  sound  intervals  themselves. 
They  may  be  called  pauses,  every  variety  of  which  occurring  in  uttered 
language  is  included  in  the  term.  In  music  the  terms  rest  and  stop  are 
most  frequently  used. 

The  measurements  extend  from  the  end  of  the  last  or  vanishing  sound 
of  the  one  interval,  to  the  beginning  of  the  first  or  appearing  sound  of  the 
following  interval.  Only  the  length  of  successive  pauses  are  compared. 
The  rhythmic  character  of  the  alternation  of  vacant  intervals  and  expira- 
tion intervals  (roughly  the  rhythmic  action  of  the  lungs  in  speaking) 
can  be  obtained  by  taking  both  as  unities  of  a  series,  finding  the  sum  of 
the  measurements  of  both,  and  the  probable  error,  according  to  the  for- 
mula on  p.  39. 

2.    Measurements  of  vacant  intervals. 
TABLE  XX. 

(Poetry.} 


4-  25 

+  28 

4-  14 

+  7 

4-  37 

•f  4 

+  3 

-f  10 

4-  7 
3 

4-  3 


Subject. 

a 

P 

t 

t 

a 

J.  W.  R. 

0.63 

0.19 

0.30 

+  I.IO 

—  0.18 

E.  W.  S. 

0-43 

O.I  I 

0.25 

+  0.87 
—  0.14 

A.  D.  B.A 

0.48 

0.23 

0.47 

-f-  o.  16 

—  0.12 

A.  D.  B.B 

0.52 

0.19 

0.36 

•f  1.16 
—  0.31 

W.  W. 

0-57 

0.15 

0.26 

-f  1.  06 
—  0.16 

A.  R.  P. 

0.46 

0.17 

0.36 

+  0.82 

0.20 

K.  H.  K. 

0.54 

O.O6 

O.I  I 

-|-o.66 
—  0.45 

H.  0. 

0.46 

0.13 

0.28 

-l-o.So 

0.20 

O.  S. 

0.44 

0.09 

0.20 

H-0.62 
—  0.28 

E.  H.  T.A 

0.21 

0.01 

O.O4 

E.  H.  T.B 

0.21 

0.017 

0.08 

4-0.25 

—  0.18 

Av. 

0-45 

0.12 

0.24 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech. 

TABLE  XXI. 

(Prose.) 


Subject. 

a              p                                 e                c 
a 

n 

G.  A.  A. 

0.57         0.14         0.24                               -f 

20 

C.  0.  S. 

0.40        0.16         0.40         +°-97          i 
—  0.17 

19 

W.  L.  P. 

07_2        0*8        038        +1%        + 

10 

Av. 

0.56               O.I9               O.34 

TABLE  XXII. 

(Poetry  read  as  prose.  ) 

Subject. 

p             t 

n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.39           0.12           0.30            l^io           

H 

C.  0. 

0.43            0.13           0.30                                      -L. 

16 

W.  C. 

0.71            0.28           0.39                 I-25           — 

II 

S. 

0.67            O.22           0.32                                      -|- 

II 

Av. 

0.55        0.18        0.32 

TABLE  XXIII. 

(Poetry  read  as  poetry.  ) 

Subject. 

fl 

a              p                                 e               c 
a 

n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.62         0.15         0.24 

14 

C.  0. 

0.44        0.13        0.29        +£73        4- 

16 

W.  C. 

0.68        0.22        0.32        +1'20        4- 

12 

—  O.22 

S. 

0.62        0.18        0.29        4-I-I2        4. 

14 

Av. 

0.59           0.17           0.28 

TABLE  XXIV. 

(Poetry  read  as  prose  without  punctuation  marks.) 

Subject. 

P 
a             p                                 e               c 
a 

n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.35         o.io         0.28                             4- 

17 

G.  F.  A. 

0.47         0.15         0.31         i£JJ         + 

15 

B.  S.  G. 

0.44        0.15         0.34        ±°;*7         + 

15 

Av. 

0.42        0.13         0.31 

84  /.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

TABLE  XXV. 
( Prose  read  as  poetry. ) 


Subject. 

a 

p 

e 

a 

S.  I. 

0.40 

0.14        0.35 

^£17 

0.  E.  S. 

0-43 

0.09            O.2O 

f^    si  * 

—  0.25 

Av. 

0.41 

o.i  i         0.27 

TABLE  XXVI. 

. 

{Summaries.} 

Tables. 

a               p 

t 
a 

XX. 

0.45         0.12 

0.24 

XXI. 

0.56         0.19 

0-34 

XXII. 

0.55         0.18 

0.32 

>• 

XXXIII. 

0.59         0.17 

0.28 

XXIV. 

0.42         0.13 

0.31 

XXV. 

0.41         o.n 

0.27 

Av.         0.44         0.15         0.29 

Unit   of    measurement,    Is ;    a,    average   duration ;    p,    immediate   probable    error ; 

P 

—,  relative  immediate  probable  error ;    e,  extreme  intervals ;    c,   character  of  greater 

extreme  ;  n,  number  of  intervals. 

3.    Observations. — The  tables  afford  a  study  of  238  pauses. 

Extreme  intervals. — The  W.  L.  P.  record,  colloquial  prose,  Table 
XXI.,  contains  the  longest  individual  interval,  of  the  entire  series,  1.45"; 
The  J.  M.  T.  record,  Table  XXII.,  poetry  read  as  prose,  the  shortest, 
o.io8;  a  span  of  1.35". 

The  second  longest  is  1.3 2s,  poetry  read  as  prose.  Where  poetry  was 
read  as  prose  without  punctuation  marks,  the  length  of  the  longest  inter- 
val does  not  exceed  0.87".  Several  intervals  occupy  0.12". 

Doubtlessly  the  longest  extreme,  especially  in  conversation,  is  frequently 
exceeded.  These  measurements  do  not  include  stops,  such,  for  example, 
as  are  made  in  lecturing  to  students  taking  notes,  in  collecting  one's  wits, 
in  deliberating,  etc. 

Character  of  greater  extreme. — 88  per  cent,  of  the  extremes  are  +, 
12  per  cent.  — ,  and  o  per  cent.  o.  (The  first  are  extremes  the  difference 
between  which  and  the  average  is  greater  than  the  difference  between  the 
average  and  the  shortest  extreme ;  the  second  are  extremes  the  difference 
between  which  and  the  average  is  greater  than  the  difference  between  the 
average  and  the  longest  extremes ;  in  the  third  case  the  extremes  of  excess 
and  deficiency  are  equal. ) 

Average  duration. — (i)  For  the  series. — The  average  length  of  the 
238  pauses,  Table  XXVI.,  is  o.44s. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  85 

(2)  For  the  sets. — The  highest  average  is  0.59%  Table  XXIII. ,  poetry 
read  as  poetry,  which  is  followed  by  0.56*,  Table  XXL,  prose ;   the  low- 
est, 0.41",  Table  XXV.,  prose  read  as  poetry;  a  range  of  o.i8s.     The 
average  for  the  set  read  without  punctuation  marks  is  o.42s. 

The  average  for  the  table  of  poetry  is  o.n8  less  than  for  the  table  of 
prose,  whereas  in  Table  XXIII.,  poetry  read  as  poetry,  it  is  o.o4s  greater 
than  in  Table  XXII. ,  poetry  read  as  prose.  An  examination  of  the  four 
tables  suggests  that  the  discrepancy  might  be  due  to  the  range  in  the 
character  of  the  records  of  Tables  XX.  and  XXI.  The  former  contains 
the  shortest  average  interval,  in  the  record  of  routine  scansion  ;  the  latter, 
the  longest,  in  the  record  of  colloquial  prose.  Eliminating  these  extremes, 
the  averages  will  very  nearly  coincide. 

The  duration  of  the  pauses  in  the  set  of  records  of  the  passage  read 
without  punctuation  marks  is  o.o8s  shorter  than  for  the  pauses  of  the  same 
passages  reads  as  prose  and  poetry  with  the  punctuation  marks.  The 
average  number  of  pauses  for  the  former  set,  however,  is  15.6,  for  the 
latter,  13.5,  a  difference  of  2.1.  The  highest  number  in  any  one  record 
of  the  sets,  17,  is  contained  in  the  Browning  passage  without  the  marks; 
the  lowest  number,  1 1 ,  in  the  Tennyson  passage  read  as  prose  with  the 
marks.  In  the  records  of  the  same  passage  (Tennyson)  without  the 
marks  the  number  is  15. 

(3)  For  the  records. — The  highest  average  for  any  individual  record  is 
o.ya8,  W.   P.  L.,  Table  XXI.,  prose,  which  is  followed  by  0.71',  W.  C., 
Table  XXII.,  poetry  read  as  prose,  and  o.68s,W.  C.,  Table  XXIII. ,  poetry 
read  as  prose ;  the  lowest  is  0.21%  E.  H.  T.A  and  B.,  Table  XX.,  routine 
scansion,  which  is  followed  by  0.35%  J.  M.  T.,  Table  XXIV.,  poetry  read 
as  prose  without  punctuation  marks;  a  range  of  o.5is.     The  range  for 
the  records  is  2.73  times  the  range  for  the  sets ;  and  the  range  for  the  in- 
dividual intervals  is   2.64  times  the  range  for  the  average  intervals  of 
the  records.     In  the  passages  that  were  read  by  the  same  subject  on  two 
different  occasions  the  highest  difference  is  0.23"  (J.  M.  T. );  the  lowest, 
o.oi3  (C.  O.);  a  range  of  0.22'. 

Absolute  irregularity. — (i)  For  the  series. — The  irregularity  in  the  co- 
ordination of  the  duration  of  the  intervals  of  the  series,  Table  XXVI.,  is 
o.is8. 

(2)  For  the  sets. — The  highest  amount  is  0.19%  Table  XXI.,  prose; 
the  lowest,  o.n3;  Table  XXV.,  prose  read  as  poetry;  a  range  of 
o.o8s. 

The  average  for  Table  XXIII.,  poetry  read  as  poetry,  is  o.oi8  smaller 
than  for  Table  XXII.,  the  same  passages  read  as  prose.  Table  XXIV., 
where  the  punctuation  marks  were  left  out,  is  more  regular  than  either. 


86  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

The  poetry  records,  Table  XX.,  are  0.07*  more  regular  than  the  prose 
records,  Table  XXL 

(3)  For  the  records.—  The  highest  is  0.28",  W.  L.  P.,  Table  XXL, 
prose,  and  W.  C.,  Table  XXII. ,  poetry  read  as  prose ;  the  lowest,  o.oi8, 
Table  XX.,  E.  H.  T.A,  routine  scansion ;  a  range  of  0.27'.  This  is  ap- 
proximately three  and  one -half  times  the  range  for  the  sets. 

Relative  irregularity. — (i)  For  the  series.  The  average  is  29%. 
Table  XXVI. 

(2)  For  the  sets. — Table  XXL,  prose,  contains  the  highest  percentage 
of  irregularity,  34%;  Table  XX.,  different  types  of  scansion,  the  lowest, 
24%  ;  a  range  of  10%. 

The  inequality  for  the  set  where  poetry  was  read  as  poetry,  Table 
XXIII. ,  is  4%  smaller  than  for  the  sets  where  poetry  was  read  as  prose. 
The  reading  of  the  passages  without  the  punctuation  marks  is  i  %  more 
regular  than  the  former.  The  pauses  in  Table  XX.,  poetry,  are  10% 
more  regular  than  in  Table  XXL ,  prose. 

(3)  For  the  records. — The  largest  amount  of  irregularity  in  any  record 
is  47%,  A.  D.  B.,  Table  XX.;  the  smallest,  4%  ;  making  the  extent  of 
the  range  43%.      This  is  4.30  times  the  range  existing  between  the  dif- 
ferent sets  of  speech  pauses. 

The  largest  difference  in  the  regularity  of  the  pauses  of  the  different 
records  of  the  same  person  is  7%,  W.  C.,  the  lowest,  i%,  C.  O.;  a 
range  of  6%. 

The  irregularity  in  the  Tennyson  stanzas  of  Tables  XXII.  and  XIII. ,  is 
greater  than  in  the  Browning  stanza.  In  Table  XXII.  the  difference  is 
5%,  and  in  Table  XXIII. ,  4%.  This  result  appears  anomalous. 
Metrically  the  verses  of  Tennyson  are  superior  to  the  verses  of  Browning, 
both  as  regards  the  alternation  of  centroids  and  the  scarcity  of  sectional 
pauses.  The  explanation,  probably,  is  that  the  subjects  W.  C.  and  S.  are 
more  irregular  in  their  pauses  than  J.  M.  T.  and  C.  O. 

4.  Results. — The  range  of  duration  for  the  pauses  of  speech  was  ap- 
proximately 1.35"  (from  o.ios  to  1.45").  This  should  hold  for  ordinary 
pauses. 

Of  the  greater  extreme  deviations  of  pauses  from  the  length  of  the 
average  pause,  approximately  88  %  are  extremes  of  excess,  12  %  extremes 
of  deficiency,  and  o  %  equal  extremes. 

The  duration  of  an  average  pause   in   speech  is  approximately  o.44s. 

As  between  prose  and  poetry,  the  difference  in  the  average  duration  is 
inconsiderable.  This  was  apriori  to  be  expected.  The  amount  of  rest 
required  in  both  cases  is  the  same.  The  pause  is  a  physiological  and 
psychological  resting  period. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  87 

The  range  in  the  duration  of  the  average  pauses  of  a  given  number  of 
reciters  will  perhaps  be  about  y^  (from  o.2is  to  o-728). 

The  elimination  of  punctuation  marks  slightly  increases  the  number, 
and  decreases  the  average  duration  of  pauses. 

The  duration  of  the  average  pause  of  the  speech  of  the  same  person 
on  different  occasions  is  never  exactly  the  same.  It  will  vary  ordinarily 
from  about  o.ois  (smallest  difference)  to  0.23"  (largest  difference). 

The  longest  and  shortest  averages  are  found,  apparently,  in  colloquial 
prose  and  routine  scansion,  respectively. 

The  average  irregularity  in  the  length  of  pauses  in  speech  is  equal  to 
approximately  0.15%  or  about  30%  of  the  average  duration. 

In  respect  to  units  of  time,  the  amount  of  irregularity  in  the  pauses 
of  different  speakers  will  vary  within  the  limits  of  about  o.oi*  and  0.28' 
(a  range  of  0.27*). 

In  respect  to  the  length  of  the  average,  the  irregularity  of  the  pauses 
of  a  given  number  of  persons  will  be  limited  to  a  range  of  about  43% 
(from  4%  to  47%). 

The  coordination  of  the  lengths  of  pauses  is  slightly  more  exact  in 
poetry  than  in  prose. 

The  elimination  of  punctuation  marks,  apparently,  does  not  tend  to 
increase  the  inequality  of  the  coordinaton. 

The  regularity  is  most  exact  in  routine  scansion. 

With  a  provisional  criterion  of  10  per  cent,  of  permissible  inequality, 
approximately  8  per  cent,  of  the  records  of  pauses  of  speech  are  rhythmi- 
cally coordinated  in  length. 

5.  Distribution  of  the  pauses  in  poetry. — Explanation. — A  sectional 
pause  is  a  vacant  interval  that  occurs  within  a  verse  ;  a  terminal  pause, 
one  that  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  verse — that  is,  between  two  verses  of 
poetry.  The  former  is  an  intra-verse,  the  latter  an  inter-verse,  pause. 

The  term  sectional  pause  has  been  applied  to  the  pauses  of  such  poetry 
as  contains  intra-verse  punctuation  marks.  A  given  verse  may  frequently 
contain  one  or  more,  or  none  of  these.  By  some  writers  the  term  is  lim- 
ited to  what  is  technically  designated  the  ' '  caesura, ' '  which  is  defined 
as  a  mid-verse  pause  occurring  within  a  foot.  In  the  sense  in  which  the 
word  is  here  employed  it  denotes  any  pause,  given  in  the  records,  occur- 
ring within  a  verse. 

The  phrase  "  end-stopped  line  "  is  employed  to  denote  a  verse  which 
is  separated  from  the  following  verse  by  a  punctuation  mark.  A  ' '  run-on 
line  ' '  is  one  that  is  not  thus  separated.  In  the  run-on  verses  the  punctu- 
ation mark  is  generally  shifted  to  the  first  part  of  the  following  verse, 
where  the  pause  should  logically  occur.  The  records  present  a  variety 
of  both  kinds  of  verses. 


88  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

The  term  terminal  pause,  in  preference  to  the  uncouth  term  end-line 
pause,  will  be  employed  to  signify  any  pause  that  separates  verses, 
whether  run-on  or  end-stopped. 

We  shall  tabulate  the  measurements  under  these  two  heads. 

Measurements  of — 

(a)     Sectional  pauses. 

TABLE  XXVII. 

{Poetry. ) 

A 
Subject.  dap 


J 

j. 

a 

1 

• 

J 

.  W.  R. 

3-40 

0.48 

0.16 

0-33 

7 

7 

E.  W.  S. 

0.16 

0.16 

i 

o 

A.  D.  B. 

4-37 

0-33 

O.IO 

0.30 

13 

4 

W.  W. 

12.  6l 

0-54 

0.15 

0.27 

23 

14 

A.  R.  P. 

0.20 

0.20 

i 

0 

H.  0. 

0.77 

0.25 

0.03 

0.12 

3 

o 

0.  S. 

0 

2 

Av. 

7s8 

0.32 

O.II 

0.25 

Ts 

3-8 

TABLE  XXVIII. 

(Poetry  read  as  prose.  ) 

Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

[*, 

*, 

J.  M.  T. 

3-90 

0.35 

0.12 

0-34 

ii 

8 

C.  0. 

4-85 

0-37 

O.II 

0.29 

13 

8 

W.  C. 

1.57 

0.31 

O.II 

0-35 

5 

2 

S. 

1.92 

0.38 

O.II 

0.28 

5 

2 

Av. 

3.06 

o-35 

O.II 

0.31 

s.s 

5 

TABLE 

XXIX. 

(  Poetry  read  as  poetry.  ) 

Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

«, 

n2 

J.  M.  T. 

6.22 

0-37 

0.15 

0.40 

ii 

8 

C.  0. 

5.16 

o-39 

0.12 

0.30 

13 

8 

W.  C. 

2.22 

0.44 

0.15 

0.34 

5 

2 

S. 

3.80 

0.47 

0.13 

0.27 

8 

2 

Av. 

4-35 

0.41 

013 

0.32 

9.2 

5 

TABLE 

XXX. 

(  Prose  read  as  poetry.  ) 

Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

n\ 

", 

S.  I. 

1.27 

0.25 

0.03 

0.12 

5 

3 

0.  E.  S. 

1.81 

0.36 

0.05 

0.13 

5 

3 

Av. 

1-54 

0.30 

0.04 

0.12 

5 

3 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  89 

TABLE  XXXI. 
(Poetry  read  as  prose  without  punctuation  marks. ) 

Sztbject.  d  a  p  —  n 


J.  M.  T. 

5-45 

0.38 

0.09 

0.23 

14 

G.  F.  A. 

6.15 

0.47 

0.1$ 

0.31 

13 

B.  S.  G. 

4.00 

0.50 

1.19 

0.38 

8 

Av. 

5-20 

o-45 

0.14 

0.30 

U. 

TABLE  XXXII. 
(Summaries  of  sectional  pauses  of  poetry. ) 

Table.  dap  », 


XXVII. 

3-58 

0.32 

O.II 

0.25 

6.8 

3.8 

XXVIII. 

3.06 

0-35 

O.II 

0.31 

8-5 

5- 

XXIX. 

4-35 

0.41 

0.13 

0.32 

9-2 

5- 

XXX. 

1-54 

0.30 

0.04 

0.12 

5- 

3- 

Av. 

3-13 

0-34 

0.09 

0.25 

7.37 

4.2 

Unit  of  measurement,    I",     d,  total  duration;    a,  average   duration;  /,  immediate 

)bable  error  ;    ->  relativ 
a 

ber  of  punctuation  marks. 


probable  error;    -,  relative  immediate  probable  error;  nlt  number  of  pauses;  nv  num- 


(b)    Terminal  pauses. 

TABLE  XXXIII. 

(Poetry.} 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

ft, 

«2 

J.  W.  R. 

1  6.  60 

0.77 

0.25 

0.32 

21 

20 

E.  W.  S. 

12.  OO 

0.44 

O.II 

0.25 

27 

22 

A.  D.  B. 

6.02 

o-75 

0.24 

0.32 

8 

5 

W.  W. 

8.64 

0.61 

0.13 

0.21 

14 

13 

H.  0. 

3.87 

o.55 

O.IO 

0.18 

7 

5 

0.  S. 

2.93 

0.42 

0.09 

0.21 

7 

5 

A.  R.  P. 

1.62 

0-54 

0.16 

O.29 

3 

2 

Av. 

7.38 

0.58 

0.15 

0.25 

12.4 

xo.: 

TABLE  XXXIV. 
( Poetry  read  as  prose. ) 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

*, 

«, 

J.  M.  T. 

1.62 

0.54 

0.06 

O.II 

3 

3 

C.  0. 

2.12 

0.70 

0.05 

0.07 

3 

3 

W.  C. 

6-37 

1.  06 

O.IO 

0.09 

6 

6 

S. 

5-52 

0.92 

0.16 

0.17 

6 

6 

Av. 

3-90 

0.80 

0.09 

O.II 

4-5 

4- 

9o  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

TABLE  XXXV. 
(  Poetry  read  as  poetry. ) 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

n\ 

*, 

J.  M.  T. 

2.31 

o.77 

0.05 

0.06 

3 

3 

C.  O. 

2.25 

0.56 

0.15 

0.26 

4 

3 

W.  C. 

6.O2 

0.86 

O.2O 

0.23 

7 

6 

S. 

4.95 

0.82 

0.12 

0.14 

6 

6 

Av.  3.88        0.75        0.13        0.17         5      4.5 

TABLE  XXXVI. 
(Prose  read  as  poetry. ) 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

«! 

«, 

S.  I. 

1-95 

0.65 

0.07 

O.IO 

3 

3 

0.  E.  S. 

1-75 

0.58 

0.06 

O.IO 

3 

3 

Av.  1.85        0.61        0.06        o.io        3        3 

TABLE  XXXVII. 
(Poetry  read  as  prose  without  punctuation  marks.} 

Subject.  d  a  p  n^       n2 

J.  M.  T.  0.62        0.20        0.03        0.15         3        3 

G.  F.  A.  1.02        0.51         0.24        0.47        2        3 

B.  S.  G.  2.62        0.37        o.io        0.27         7        6 

Av.  1.42        0.36        0.12        0.29        4        4 

TABLE  XXXVIII. 
(Summaries  of  terminal  pauses  of  poetry.} 

Table.  da-  p  ^  n,  n 


a 

XXXIII. 

7.38 

0.58 

0.15 

0.25 

12.4 

10.2 

XXXIV. 

3-90 

0.80 

0.09 

O.II 

4-5 

4-5 

XXXV. 

3.88 

0-75 

0.13 

0.17 

5 

4-5 

XXXVI. 

1.85 

0.61 

0.06 

O.IO 

3 

3 

Av.          4.25        0.68        o.io        0.15          6.22        5.55 
Unity  of  measurement,   Is.     d,  total  duration  ;   a,  average  duration ;  /,  immediate 

probable  error;  — ,  relative  immediate  probable  error;  nv  number  of  pauses  ;  «2,  number 
of  punctuation  marks. 

Comparison  of  tables. — The  study  is  based  on  129  sectional  pauses 
and  73  sectional  punctuation  marks  ;  and  on  122  terminal  pauses  and  114 
terminal  punctuation  marks.  This  is  exclusive  of  Tables  XXXI.  and 
XXXVII. ,  poetry  read  as  prose  without  punctuation  marks. 

Numerical  relation  of  pauses  to  punctuation  marks.  — It  is  a  trite  obser- 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  91 

vation,  enforced  by  an  examination  of  the  records,  that  punctuation  marks 
and  pauses  do  not  invariably  coincide,  and  that  pauses  frequently  occur 
irrespective  of  any  visible  symbol  of  punctuation.  Furthermore,  the 
tables  warrant  the  assertion  that  the  number  of  pauses,  both  sectional  and 
terminal,  exceeds  the  number  of  punctuation  marks.  That  is  to  say, 
while,  as  the  records  show,  the  number  of  punctuation  marks  exceeds  the 
number  of  correlative  punctuation-mark  pauses,  the  number  of  non-punc- 
tuation-mark pauses  is  so  large  that,  for  poetry  in  general,  the  pauses  out- 
number, quite  considerably,  the  marks. 

The  proportion  of  the  number  of  sectional  pauses  to  sectional  punctua- 
tion marks  is  as  5.37  :  4.2  ;  of  terminal  pauses  to  terminal  punctuation 
marks,  as  6.22  :  5.55.  In  other  words,  the  pauses  occurring  within  the 
verses  are  1.75  times  more  frequent  than  the  corresponding  punctuation 
marks;  and  those  following,  1.12  times  more  frequent  than  the  corre- 
sponding punctuation  marks. 

The  highest  number  of  sectional  pauses  occurring  in  any  record  is  23, 
W.  W.,  Table  XXVII. ,  where  there  are  fourteen  punctuation  marks  for 
eighteen  verses  of  Byron's  Childe  Harold.  In  several  records  the  sectional 
pause,  as  well  as  punctuation  mark,  is  entirely  lacking. 

The  proportion  of  the  number  of  terminal  punctuation  marks  to  sec- 
tional punctuation  marks  is  as  5.55  :  4.2,  or  as  1.33  :  i. 

While  the  punctuation  mark  is  thus,  for  a  given  variety  of  verses,  gener- 
ally largely  of  inter-verse  occurrence,  in  certain  kinds  of  verse  structure 
it  is  exclusively  a  matter  of  inter-verse  occurrence ;  yet  in  other  cases  the 
sectional  punctuation  marks  are  predominant.  (As  instances,  see  W.  W. 
and  C.  O.  records  for  the  latter,  and  E.  W.  S.,  A.  R.  P.  and  H.  O.  records 
for  the  former). 

The  number  of  pauses  occurring  within  the  verse  is  proportioned  to  the 
number  occurring  at  the  end  of  the  verse  as  7. 37:  6. 22,  or  as  1.18  :  i. 

The  proportion  between  the  number  of  sectional  and  terminal  pauses  is 
thus  smaller  than  the  proportion  between  the  number  of  sectional  and 
terminal  punctuation  marks.  Whereas  the  number  of  sectional  punctua- 
tion marks  is  smaller  than  the  number  of  terminal  punctuation  marks,  the 
number  of  sectional  pauses  is  greater  than  the  number  of  terminal  pauses. 
These  facts  may  be  interpreted  as  signifying  that  a  certain  artificiality 
obtains  in  the  distribution  of  the  punctuation  marks  in  verse.  The  tend- 
ency is  to  unwarrantably  eliminate  the  marks  from  the  interior  of  the  line. 
In  reading,  the  deficiency  of  punctuation  marks  is  restored  by  introducing 
extra  sectional  pauses.  The  tendency  of  the  former  should  be  to  preserve 
the  rhythm  and  obscure  the  thought,  of  the  latter,  to  disturb  the  rhythm 
and  elucidate  the  thought.  Both  principles  find  application  in  the  records 
cited  above. 


92  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

The  number  of  sectional  pauses  in  Table  XXVIII.  is  smaller  than  in 
the  corresponding  table  (XXIX.),  where  the  rendering  was  purposely 
poetical.  This,  possibly,  explains  why  the  latter  does  not  sound  more 
distinctly  poetical  than  the  former.  Where  the  selections  were  read 
without  punctuation  marks,  the  number  of  sectional  pauses,  relatively  to 
the  number  of  punctuation  marks  in  the  corresponding  records  of  Tables 
XXVIII.  and  XXIX.,  was  increased.  The  number  of  terminal  pauses, 
however,  remains,  relatively  to  the  number  of  punctuation  marks,  the  same 
as  in  the  prose  and  poetry  rendering  of  the  same  passage. 

Relative  total  duration. — The  average  aggregate  duration,  Table  XXXII. , 
of  the  sectional  pauses  sustains  the  proportion  to  the  terminal  pauses 
(Table  XXXVIII.)  of  3.13":  4.25%  or  as  1:1.35.  In  respect  of  number 
of  pauses  the  proportion  is  reversed — namely  as  1.18:1.  That  is,  while 
the  number  of  sectional  pauses  is  approximately  20%  higher  than  the 
number  of  terminal  pauses,  the  duration  of  the  sectional  pauses  is  ap- 
proximately 33%  less  than  the  duration  of  the  terminal  pauses.  The 
difference  in  duration  is  thus  larger  than  the  difference  in  number. 

The  most  notable  exception  is  afforded  by  Tables  XXXI.  and  XXVII. , 
where  the  proportion  of  the  duration  of  the  sectional  pauses  to  the 
terminal  pauses  is  as  3.66:  i.  The  selection  from  Bryon,  and  the  passages 
from  Browning  and  Tennyson,  also  differ  in  this  regard,  the  former 
(Browning)  having  the  greater  mass  of  silence  within,  the  other  (Ten- 
nyson) without,  the  verses.  This  suggests  important  considerations  with 
reference  to  the  metrical  quality  of  the  verses  of  the  two  types  of  poetry. 
The  relatively  greater  number  and  aggregate  duration  of  the  sectional 
pauses  tends  to  jeopardize  the  unity  of  the  verse,  and  to  cause  to  coalesce 
rather  than  segregate  as  distinct  wholes,  the  successive  verses.  When  the 
bulk  of  silence  is  thrown  between,  instead  of  within,  the  verses,  they 
must  needs  stand  forth  in  consciousness  as  unified  groups  of  presentation 
complexes. 

Relative  average  duration. — The  duration  of  the  average  sectional 
pause  is  proportioned  to  that  of  the  terminal  as  o.34s:o.68s,  or  as 
1:2.  In  other  words,  the  average  terminal  pause  of  a  series  of  struc- 
turally different  verses  was  precisely  twice  as  long  as  the  average  sectional 
pause. 

.  As  has  been  suggested,  this  subordination  of  length  of  the  sectional 
to  the  terminal  pause,  is  probably  the  most  potent  principle  of  the  segre- 
gation of  verses  into  distinct  groups. 

.  The  records  in  which  the  verse  intervals  most  pronouncedly  appear  as 
distinct  wholes  are  those  in  which  the  terminal  pauses  are  predominant  in 
the  number  of  occurrences  and  in  the  quantity  of  duration  (cf.  E.  W.  S., 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  93 

O.  S.,  A.  R.  P.,  H.  O.,  and  E.  H.  T.  records).  In  the  records  in 
which  this  principle  of  subordination  is  violated,  the  unity  of  the  verse 
interval  is  perceptibly  disturbed  (cf.  W.  W.  record).  When  the  prin- 
ciple of  subordinating  the  sectional  to  the  terminal  pauses  is  reversed, 
the  verse  loses  its  character  as  a  distinct  unitary  group.  This  is  instanced 
in  all  the  records  where  the  punctuation  marks  were  left  out. 

The  observance  of  this  principle  largely  gives  the  character  of  poetry  to 
the  passages  that  were  read  as  prose.  These  passages  with  doubtful  rhythm, 
sound  more  like  poetry  than  prose.  In  fact,  from  this  point  of  view, 
they  are  rather  more  poetical  than  the  corresponding  readings  of  the  selec- 
tions as  poetry.  Examination  of  the  two  series  of  records  shows  the  fol- 
lowing :  the  average  sectional  pause  is  o.  o6s  shorter  in  the  table  (XXVIII. ) 
for  poetry  read  as  prose  than  in  the  table  (XXIX. )  for  poetry  read  as  poetry  ; 
the  terminal  pause,  o.  05*  longer.  Naturally,  we  would  expect  the  sectional 
pause  to  be  shorter  in  the  distinctly  poetical  renderings. 

The  observance  of  the  rule  of  subordinating  the  length  of  the  sectional 
to  terminal  pauses  in  the  prose  rendering  of  the  set  of  test  record,  sug- 
gests that  the  structural  (organic)  and  the  logical  pause  arrangement  in 
the  verses  coincide.  Where  the  selection  was  printed  as  prose,  no  sug- 
gestions from  the  verse  arrangement  of  the  words  could  tend  to  make  the 
terminal  pauses  longer.  They  were  prolonged,  evidently,  because  the 
subject  felt  that  at  those  points  in  the  sequence  of  words  a  long  pause 
should  naturally — because  representing  to  the  hearer  a  large  stop  or  tran- 
sition in  the  thought — be  made.  To  preserve  the  integrity  of  the  verse, 
the  larger  transitions  in  thought  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  coincide  with 
the  terminal  pauses.  In  the  records  of  W.  W.  and  J.  M.  T.  this  rule  is 
not  observed.  The  result  is  that  the  verses  are  split  up  and  lose  their 
unity,  to  retain  which  they  would  have  to  be  scanned  in  such  a  fashion  as 
to  involve  a  sacrifice  of  thought.  As  between  the  two,  the  average 
reader  prefers  sacrificing  rhythmical  perfection  to  impairing  the  distinct 
articulation  of  the  thought. 

The  introduction  of  the  "  caesura  "  illustrates  the  same  principle.  The 
difference  between  the  length  of  the  caesuras  and  the  terminal  pauses  in 
the  records  is  less  than  the  difference  between  the  other  sectional  pauses 
and  the  terminal  pauses.  The  tendency  of  the  caesura  is  to  split  the  verse 
up  into  two  unities.  The  caesural  and  the  terminal  punctuation  marks 
should  both  coincide  with  naturally  large  thought  transitions,  to  preserve 
the  unity  of  the  verse  interval. 

The  subordination  of  pauses  in  verse  finds  its  parallel  in  prose.  The 
pauses  between  sentences  are  longer  than  those  contained  within  sentences. 
The  average  for  all  kinds  of  pauses  in  prose  (Table  XXL)  is  0.56'.  The 


94  /•  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

average  for  the  pauses  at  the  end  of  sentences  is  i.2is.  (The  records 
afford  only  seven  instances.)  The  relation  is  as  1:2.16. 

The  difference  between  the  two  is,  that  the  terminal  pauses  of  poetry 
are  relatively  equidistant.  In  prose  the  sentence  may  be  of  a  great  variety 
of  lengths  ;  hence  the  terminal  pause  in  prose  is  not  nearly  so  periodically 
recurrent  as  in  poetry.  This  constitutes  the  essential  difference,  which  is 
so  easily  heard,  between  the  pauses  of  prose  and  poetry. 

All  the  records  are  in  complete  agreement  with  the  principle  of  pause 
subordination,  except  two  of  the  records  of  Table  XXXI.,  prose  without 
punctuation  marks,  where  the  average  of  the  sectional  pauses  is  o.  4 5s.  The 
pauses  of  these  records,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  ear,  are  placed 
with  hesitancy  and  diffidence. 

Regularity. — The  absolute  regularity  of  the  two  series  differs  only  by 
o.ois.  The  relative  inequality  of  the  terminal  pauses  is  15%;  of  the 
sectional  25%.  The  terminal  pauses  are  one  and  two-thirds  times  as  reg- 
ular as  the  sectional. 

The  regularity  is  higher  in  the  prose  reading  of  the  test  than  in  the 
corresponding  reading  of  the  passages  as  poetry. 

The  lowest  inequality  for  any  set  of  records  of  sectional  pauses  is  12%, 
Table  XXX.,  prose  read  as  poetry,  the  highest,  32%,  Table  XXIX., 
poetry  read  as  poetry  ;  a  range  of  20%. 

The  lowest  inequality  for  the  terminal  pauses  is  10%,  Table  XXXVI., 
prose  read  as  poetry;  the  highest  29%,  Table  XXXVII. ,  poetry  read  as 
prose  without  punctuation  marks ;  a  range  of  19%. 

The  lowest  degree  of  irregularity  for  any  record  of  sectional  pauses  is 
12%,  records  of  H.  O.  and  S.  I;  the  highest,  40%,  J.  M.  T. ;  a  range 
of  28%. 

For  terminal  pauses  the  lowest  is  7%,  C.  O.  ;  the  largest  47%,  G.  F. 
A.,  the  record  without  the  punctuation  marks ;  a  range  of  40%. 

The  range  for  the  individual  records  of  sectional  pauses  is  8%  larger 
than  the  range  for  the  sets ;  and,  of  the  terminal  pauses,  21%  larger. 

Results— 

The  number  of  pauses  of  all  kinds  in  recited  poetry  is  generally  greater 
than  the  number  of  punctuation  marks. 

The  number  of  punctuation -mark  pauses  is  frequently  if  not  generally 
slightly  less  than  the  number  of  punctuation  marks,  in  recited  poetry. 

The  proportion  of  the  number  of  pauses  to  punctuation  marks  varies 
according  as  they  are  sectional  or  terminal.  In  respect  to  the  sec- 
tional pauses,  there  were  approximately  7  for  every  4  punctuation  marks ; 
and  for  the  terminal  pauses,  approximately  10  for  every  9  punctuation 
marks. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  95 

The  terminal  punctuation  marks  for  a  varied  collection  of  verses  seem  to 
be  about  ip$  times  the  frequency  of  the  sectional  punctuation  marks. 

The  frequency  of  sectional  pauses,  for  a  variety  of  verses,  is  approx- 
imately i^  times  that  of  terminal  pauses.  Most  punctuation  marks,  for  a 
variety  of  verses,  seem  to  be  terminal ;  most  pauses,  sectional. 

The  combined  length  of  the  terminal  pauses  is  approximately  ife  times 
that  of  the  sectional  pauses.  In  some  verses,  however,  the  aggregate 
length  of  the  latter  may  be  approximately  3^3  times  that  of  the  former. 

The  average  terminal  pause  in  a  variety  of  verses  is  about  twice  as  long 
as  the  average  sectional  pause. 

The  subordination  of  sectional  to  terminal  pauses  helps  largely  to  unify 
the  verses  into  distinct  wholes. 

The  terminal  pauses  of  poetry  occur,  with  a  high  degree  of  regularity, 
at  relatively  equidistant  points ;  those  of  prose,  at  indefinite  distances. 
The  length  of  sentences  in  prose  admits  of  nominal  coordination ;  of 
verses  in  poetry,  of  a  high  degree  of  coordination.  The  latter  may, 
and  often  do,  become  rhythmical ;  the  former  never  or  rarely  do. 

Removing  punctuation  marks  reverses  the  rule  of  subordination :  the 
terminal  pauses  become  subordinate  to  the  sectional.  The  latter  are 
increased  in  both  length  and  frequency  when  compared  with  records  of 
the  same  selections  with  the  marks ;  the  former  remain  relatively  the  same. 
This  reversal  tends  to  destroy  the  unity  of  verse  intervals. 

The  irregularity  of  the  terminal  pauses  of  poetry  is  about  15%  of  the 
average  duration;  of  the  sectional,  25%.  The  former  are  about  ij/z 
times  more  regular  than  the  latter.  This  suggests  that  sectional  pauses 
are  a  more  important  disturbing  factor  of  the  rhythm  of  verses  than 
terminal. 

The  irregularity  of  the  sectional  pauses  for  different  persons  ranges 
from  about  12%  to  40%  (28%)  ;  of  the  terminal  pauses,  from  about 
7%  to  47%  (40%)  of  the  average. 

Accepting  10%  as  the  limit  of  inequality  for  rhythmical  units,  none 
of  the  records  of  sectional  pauses,  and  only  25%  of  terminal  pauses,  are 
rhythmically  coordinated  in  length. 

6.      The  time  value  of  punctuation  marks. 

Two  divergent  views  have  obtained :  Complete  lawlessness  reigns 
among  the  different  punctuation  marks  with  respect  to  their  relative 
time  value  ;  and,  they  may  be  arranged  in  a  scale  of  values,  whether  or 
not  the  temporal  and  logical  values  correspond. 

The  tables  are  arranged  in  two  groups :  punctuation-mark  pauses,  and 
non-punctuation-mark  pauses.  The  former  correspond,  in  the  records, 


96  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

with  the  symbols  which  occur  between  the  same  words  in  print.  These 
symbols  were  directly  perceived,  perhaps  vaguely,  as  the  selections  were 
read ;  and  were  pictured  perhaps,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  to  the 
imagination,  when  the  words  were  recited  without  looking  at  the  printed 
page. 

The  term  non-punctuation-mark  pauses,  however  uncouth,  indicates 
pauses  in  the  records  between  the  words  of  which  there  are  no  punctua- 
tion marks  upon  the  printed  page.  These  pauses  are  of  two  kinds  : 
those  purely  accidental,  and  those  conducive  to  emphasis.  The  latter 
may  be  emotional  or  logical.  These  add  clearness  and  emphasis  to  the 
thought.  This  is  not  true  of  the  fortuitous ;  they  tend  rather  to  ob- 
cure.  In  the  table  the  division  into  logical  and  emotional  is  disre- 
garded. A  punctuation  mark  may  frequently  be  inserted  where  they  oc- 
cur. The  division  into  accidental  and  emphasis  has  been  made  by  the 
judgment  of  the  experimenter's  ear,  on  the  basis  of  the  context  or  the 
mode  of  delivery.  Terminal  non-punctuation-mark  pauses  have  gener- 
ally been  regarded  as  emphasis  pauses. 

i 

Measurements  of  punctuation-mark  pauses. 
TABLE  XXXIX. 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

t 

a 

n 

J.  W.  R. 

1.79 

0.89 

0.03 

0.03 

2 

E.  W.  S. 

2.52 

0.63 

O.I  I 

0.17 

4 

A.  D.  B. 

2-33 

I.I6 

0.00 

0.00 

2 

A.  R.  P. 

1.20 

0.60 

0.21 

o-35 

2 

G.  A.  A. 

0-57 

0.57 

I 

W.  L.  P. 

1.16 

1.16 

I 

C.  O.  S. 

2.27 

0-75 

0.  12 

0.16 

3 

W.  C. 

2.27 

1.13 

0.05 

0.04 

2 

S. 

1.80 

0.90 

0.16 

0.17 

3 

S.  I. 

1.42 

0.71 

0.00 

0.00 

2 

0.  E.  S. 

1.28 

0.64 

o.oo 

0.00 

2 

W.  C.A 

2-47 

1.23 

0.00 

o.oo 

2 

S.A 

1.77 

0.88 

0.08 

0.09 

2 

Total 

22.85 

28 

Av.  0.86  0.07  0.09 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  07 

TABLE  XL. 


Subject. 

d 

a 

W.  L.  P. 

1-45 

1-45 

G.  A.  A. 

3-72 

0-93 

C.  O.  S. 

0.90 

0.90 

O.  S. 

0.62 

0.62 

H.  0. 

0.82 

0.82 

C.  0. 

0.62 

0.62 

J.  M.  T. 

0.87 

0.87 

C.  O.A 

0.64 

0.64 

Total 

9.64 

Av. 

0.85 

TABLE  XLI. 

Or) 


TABLE  XLII. 

CO 


I 

a 
o.io 


ii 

O.IO 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

L 

n 

a 

W.  W. 

1.66 

0.83 

o.oo 

o.oo 

2 

W.  L.  P. 

1.  12 

1.  12 

1 

J.  M.  T. 

i-45 

0.72 

0.03 

0.04 

2 

C.  0. 

1.  06 

o-53 

o.oo 

0.00 

2 

Total 

5-29 

7 

Av. 

0.80 

Subjtct.  dap 

J.  W.  R.  i.io  i.io  I 

W.  W.  5.37  0.76  0.05  0.06  7 

W.  L.  P.  1.87  0.93  0.58  0.62  2 

J.  M.  T.  1.64  0.54  0.19  0.35  3 

C.  O..B  2. 02  0.67  0.03  0.04  3 

C.  O.4  1.85  0.61  0.14  0.22  3 

Total  13-85  19 

Av.  0.77  0.19  0.26 


98 


/.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 
TABLE  XLIII. 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

t 

a 

n 

J.  W.  R. 

10.29 

0.68 

0.19 

0.28 

15 

E.  W.  S. 

5-43 

0.49 

0.02 

0.04 

II 

A.  D.  B. 

4.64 

0.66 

o.  16 

0.24 

7 

W.  W. 

7.56 

0.47 

0.  12 

0.25 

16 

H.  0. 

1.47 

0.49 

0.05 

O.IO 

3 

O.  S. 

1.81 

0-45 

O.O9 

O.2O 

4 

G.  A.  A. 

6.  20 

0.48 

0.09 

0.18 

13 

W.  L.  P. 

3-77 

0-75 

0.21 

0.28 

5 

C.  O.  S. 

1.70 

0.42 

0.13 

0.30 

4 

J.  M.  T. 

2.06 

0.68 

0.06 

0.08 

3 

C.  O. 

1.  12 

0.28 

O.O7 

0.25 

4 

W.  C. 

4-75 

0.79 

0.13 

0.16 

6 

s. 

4-50 

0-75 

0.13 

0.17 

6 

S.  I. 

0.87 

0.29 

O.O3 

O.IO 

3 

0.  E.  S. 

1.  12 

0-39 

O.02 

0.05 

3 

C.    O.A 

2.70 

0-45 

O.O9 

O.2O 

6 

W.  C.A 

4.67 

0.77 

0.21 

0.27 

6 

S.A 

4-77 

Q.79 

0.21 

0.26 

6 

Total 

69.43 

12! 

Av. 

0.56 

O.I  I 

0.18 

TABLE 

XLIV. 

Subject. 

d 

a                     p 

. 

a 

E.  W.  S. 

1-75 

0.43                 0.09 

0.20                 4 

J.  M.  T. 

0-57 

0-57 

I 

S.  I. 

0.52 

0.52 

I 

0.  E.  S. 

0.46 

0.46 

I 

C.  0. 

0.66 

0.66 

I 

Total 

3^96 

8 

Av. 

0.53                0.09 

O.2O 

TABLE  XLV. 

Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

t 

a 

n 

E.  W.  S. 

0.60 

0.30 

0.06 

0.20 

2 

C.  0.  S. 

0.57 

0.28 

0.15 

0-53 

2 

H.  0. 

o-37 

0-37 

W.  L.  P. 

1.  10 

1.  10 

C.    O.B 

0-45 

0.45 

J.  M.  T. 

0.62 

0.62 

C.  0. 

0.56 

0.56 

Total 

4.27 

9 

Av. 

0.52 

O.IO 

0.36 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech. 


99 


TABLE  XL VI. 


(  Summaries 

for  punctuation-mark 

pauses) 

Table. 

d 

a 

P 

t 

a 

n 

XXXIX.  (;) 

22.85 

0.86 

0.07 

0.09 

27 

XL.            (.) 

9.64 

0.85 

O.IO 

O.IO 

II 

XLI.         (,-) 

5.29 

0.80 

7 

XLII.        (!) 

13.85 

0.77 

0.19 

0.26 

19 

XLIII.      (,) 

69.43 

0.56 

O.I  I 

0.18 

121 

XLIV.    (—  ) 

3.96 

0-53 

0.09 

O.2O 

8 

XLV.         (:) 

4.27 

0.52 

O.IO 

0.36 

9 

Total 

129.29 

202 

Av. 

0.70 

O.I  I 

0.19 

Unit  of  measurement,  Is. 

d,  duration. 

a,  average  duration. 


/,  immediate  probable  error. 

— ,  relative  immediate  probable  error. 

n,  number  of  punctuation  marks. 


Measurements  of  non-punctuation-mark  pauses. 

TABLE  XLVII. 
{Emphasis} 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

i 

a 

n 

J.  W.  R. 

2.14 

0.42 

0.15 

0-35 

5 

E.  W.  S. 

i.  ii 

0.27 

0.07 

0.25 

4 

A.  D.  B. 

2.45 

0.27 

O.IO 

o.37 

9 

W.  W. 

4.07 

6.50 

0.17 

0-34 

8 

A.  R.  P. 

0.42 

0.42 

i 

O.  S. 

0-34 

0-34 

i 

H.  0. 

1-95 

0-39 

0.13 

0-33 

5 

W.  L.  P. 

2.68 

0.44 

0.15 

o-34 

6 

G.  A.  A. 

0.87 

0-43 

0.03 

007 

2 

C.  O.  S. 

2.02 

0.25 

0.04 

o.  16 

8 

J.  M.  T. 

0.58 

0.29 

0.  II 

0-37 

2 

C.  0. 

0-95 

0.23 

0.05 

0.21 

4 

W.  C. 

0.90 

0.30 

0.05 

0.16 

3 

S. 

1.42 

0.47 

0.16 

0-34 

3 

S.  I. 

0.60 

0.30 

0.02 

0.06 

2 

O.  E.  S. 

o-43 

0-43 

I 

Total 

22.93 

64" 

Av. 

0.36 

0.09 

0.25 

100 


/.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 


TABLE  XLVIII. 
(Accidental) 


Subject. 

d 

a 

P 

£ 

a 

n 

J.  W.  R. 

0.47 

0.23 

O.O6 

0.26 

2 

E.  W.  3. 

0.31 

0.15 

0.00 

o.oo 

2 

A.  D.  B. 

o-93 

0.31 

0.04 

0.12 

3 

W.  W. 

0-95 

0.47 

o.oo 

0  00 

2 

A.  R.  P. 

0.20 

0.20 

I 

0.  S. 

0.31 

0.3I 

I 

W.  L.  P. 

0-54 

0.27 

0.00 

o.oo 

2 

C.  O.  S. 

0.27 

O.27 

I 

J.  M.  T. 

O.gi 

0.91 

I 

C.  0. 

1.  00 

0.50 

0.14 

0.28 

2 

W.  C. 

0.32 

0.32 

I 

S. 

1.02 

0-34 

0.15 

0.44 

3 

O.  E.  S. 

0.25 

0.25 

i 

Total 

7.48 

22 

Av. 

0-34 

0.05 

0.15 

TABLE  XLIX. 
(Summaries  of  non-punctuation-mark  pauses'} 

Table.  d 

XLVII.     (Emphasis)       22.93 


XLVIII.  (Accidental)       7.48 

Total  30.41 

Av. 

Unit  of  measurement,  Is. 
#,  average  duration. 

— ,  relative  immediate  probable  error. 


a 

0.36 
0-34 


P 

0.09 
0.05 


i 

a 
0.25 

0.15 


n 
64 

22 


0.35  O.O7  O.2O 

d,  total  duration. 

/,  immediate  probable  error. 

«,  number  of  pauses. 


Results. — Two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  pauses  were  measured,  202 
punctuation -mark  and  86  non-punctuation-mark.  Unfortunately  several 
of  the  punctuation-marks  occurred  so  infrequently  as  to  render  some  of 
the  results  entirely  provisional.  Far  more  measurements  are  needed. 

In  respect  to  the  frequency  of  pauses  occurring  in  speech,  approxi- 
mately 75  per  cent,  are  punctuation-mark  pauses.  The  balance  are  non- 
punctuation-mark  pauses.  In  the  records,  60%  of  the  former,  were 
commas,  13%  semicolons,  9%  exclamation-marks,  5%  periods,  4% 
colons,  3%  dashes  and  3%  comma-dashes  (,-).  The  records  of  poetry, 
although  more  numerous  than  those  of  prose,  contain  :  of  semicolons 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  101 

66%,  periods  45%,  comma-dashes  86%,  exclamation-marks  87%,  com- 
mas 72%,  colons  62%,  and  dashes  75%.  This  may  possibly  indicate 
that  the  periods  are  more  abundant  in  prose,  and  the  exclamation-marks 
and  comma-dashes  in  poetry. 

About  75%  of  the  non-punctuation-mark  pauses  are  emphasis  pauses. 
These  tend  to  contribute  strength  and  perspicuity  to,  and  the  accidental 
pauses  to  detract  these  from,  the  thought  of  the  sentences.  The  ac- 
cidental pauses,  as  was  to  be  expected  in  rational,  coherent  speech,  are 
very  rare  (about  7%  of  all  pauses). 

Apparently,  over  40%  of  the  pauses  of  speech  are  comma  pauses. 
The  relative  frequency  of  the  different  punctuation  marks  differs  some- 
what for  poetry  and  prose,  and  for  different  styles  of  writing. 

The  punctuation-mark  pauses  in  the  records  occupy  about  80  %  of  the 
aggregate  duration  of  all  kinds  of  pauses.  Of  the  former,  commas 
occupy  53%;  semicolons,  17%;  exclamation-marks,  10%  ;  periods, 
7%;  comma-dashes,  4%;  colons,  3%;  and  dashes  3%.  The  time 
subordination  corresponds  with  that  of  frequency,  but  the  percentages  do 
not  exactly  correspond. 

The  time  value  of  the  average  punctuation-mark  pause  is  about  twice 
that  of  the  non-punctuation-mark  pause  (former  in  records  =0.70'; 
latter  =o.35s). 

The  shortest  average  punctuation-mark  pause  (:)  is  seemingly  longer 
than  the  longest  average  non-punctuation-mark  pause.  The  difference 
was  about  o.i6s.  Only  nine  of  the  former  were  measured.  It  may  be 
somewhat  uncertain. 

The  longest  average  punctuation-mark  pause  is  considerably  longer 
than  the  shortest  average  punctuation -mark  pause  [about  0.34*;  from 
0.52*  (:)  to  o.86s  (;)]• 

The  average  accidental  and  emphasis  pauses  appear  to  be  about  equal 
in  length  (range,  o.o2s). 

The  duration  of  an  average  punctuation-mark  pause  of  spoken  poetry 
and  prose  is  about  o.7o3. 

Punctuation  marks  differ  in  respect  to  the  time  which  they  occupy  in 
speech,  both  absolutely  and  relatively.  Generally,  no  two  consecutive 
punctuation  marks,  of  the  same  or  different  kind,  are  exactly  coordinated 
in  length.  The  longest  and  shortest  averages  of  the  tables  are  as  fol- 
lows:  semicolons,  1.23%  and  0.57"  (range,  o.66s)  ;  periods  (Table  XL.), 
i.45s  and  o.62s  (range,  0.83")  ;  comma-dashes  (Table  XLL),  1.12*  and 
o.538  (range>  °-598)  ')  exclamation-maiks  (Table  XLII.),  i.io8  and  0.54" 
(range,  0.56')  ;  commas  (Table  XLIII.),  o.  79s  and  o.  28s  (range,  0.51")  ; 
dashes  (Table  XLIV. ),  o. 66s  and  0.43*  (range,  o.23s)  ;  and  colon  pauses 


102  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

i. ios  and  o.37s  (range/ 0.7 3s).  The  range  for  the  three  punctuation- 
mark  pauses  of  greatest  frequency  follows  the  subsumption  according  to 
the  average  duration  :  it  is  greatest  for  the  semicolon,  and  least  for  the 
comma,  pauses.  The  difference  in  the  ranges  of  these  is  0.15*. 

The  average  lengths  of  different  punctuation  marks  obey  a  rule  of 
subordination,  more  or  less  indefinite  in  details.  In  the  main,  we  can 
arrange  them  in  three  groups:  (i)  the  semicolon  and  period  ;  (2)  the 
exclamation-point  and  comma-dash;  and  (3)  the  comma,  dash  and 
colon.  The  interrogation  point  presumably  belongs  to  one  of  the  first 
two.  The  approximate  value  of  the  first  group  is  o.86s,  of  the  second, 
0.78%  and  the  third,  0.5  3s.  No  fixed  line  of  demarkation  exists  be- 
tween the  groups.  The  difference  between  (i)  and  (2)  (it  is  possible 
to  combine  them  into  one)  appears  less  marked  than  between  (2)  and  (3). 

The  regularity  of  punctuation  and  non-punctuation-mark  pauses  is 
about  equal.  The  average  amount  of  irregularity  is  approximately  o.  ios, 
or  19%  of  the  average  duration. 

Apparently,  commas  are  more  irregular  than  semicolons.  Exclama- 
tion-marks are  doubtful,  owing  to  extreme  irregularity  of  W.  L.  P. 
The  frequency  of  the  other  punctuation-marks  is  insufficient  to  justify 
any  conclusions. 

The  range  of  irregularity  for  the  punctuation -mark  pauses  of  a  given 
number  of  speakers  is,  in  units  of  time,  about  o.ip8  (fromo.o2s  to  o.2is); 
and,  as  a  fraction  of  the  average,  about  50%  (from  3%  to  53%).  This 
is  slightly  larger  than  for  non-punctuation  mark  pauses  (0.15%  or  38%). 

Accepting  tentatively  the  10%  criterion,  43%  of  the  semicolons,  40% 
of  the  exclamation-marks,  28%  of  the  commas,  15%  of  the  emphasis 
pauses  and  o%  of  the  accidental  pauses,  are  rhythmically  coordinated  in 
length.  The  figures  for  the  comma  and  emphasis  pauses  are  the  most 
trustworthy. 

The  concept  of  the  punctuation  mark. — Upon  the  printed  page  it  is  a 
symbol,  like  any  other  character  of  type,  meaningless  apart  from  an 
interpreting  mind.  Through  experience,  it  acquires  a  definite  connota- 
tion just  like  any  of  the  letters. 

Every  character  upon  the  page  has  a  twofold  significance  for  speech : 
it  represents  a  physiological  and  a  psychological  process.  The  latter  is 
conditioned  upon  a  presentation  of  sense  ;  and  is  translated  into  a  defi- 
nite motor  innervation  as  soon  as  it  is  apperceived.  When  the  characters 
are  letters,  in  isolation  or  in  combination,  the  apperception  of  a  letter  or 
word  expresses  itself  in  a  definite  adjustment  of  the  larynx,  giving  rise 
to  a  definite  sound. 

Similarly,   punctuation    marks    are    meaningless    presentations    until 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  103 

apperceived.  They  acquire  a  definite  meaning  according  to  the  way  the 
contours  differ.  The  significance  of  any  cognate  characters  depends 
upon  such  distinguishing  traits  of  contour.  A  .  and  a  ;,  just  as  an  s  and 
a  c,  are  connected  with  distinct  apperceptions. 

As  interpreted  presentations  (apperceptions),  punctuation  marks 
denote  breaks  or  transitions  in  the  continuity  of  the  thought  and  differ- 
ences in  the  quality  or  character  of  the  pause.  A  period  denotes  the 
termination  of  a  single  wave  (pulse  or  oscillation)  of  thought ;  a  semi- 
colon, a  ripple  in  the  wave  without  being  a  break  ;  and  the  comma,  a 
minor  ripple.  The  two  latter  are  a  species  of  subordinate  waves  com- 
prehended in  the  unity  of  the  whole  wave.  There  are  several  such 
species  of  thought-waves,  e.  g.,  those  of  declaration,  interrogation,  excla- 
mation. In  the  main,  the  different  punctuation  marks  have  as  fixed  a 
signification  for  thought  as  do  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

Finally,  as  motor  resultants  they  denote  physiological  processes  differing 
according  as  the  marks  and  the  character  of  the  waves  of  thought  differ. 
The  physiological  differences  are  threefold  :  (i)  As  to  modulation.  The 
pitch  of  the  voice  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  sign.  This  is  a 
subject  for  special  research.  (  2  )  As  to  timbre.  This  is  specially  noticeable 
in  the  bracket  and  parenthesis  (or  in  the  parenthetical  commas),  question- 
mark  and  exclamation-mark.  This  subject  also  merits  special  investiga- 
tion. (3)  As  to  the  pause.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  obvious  difference. 
Punctuation  marks,  physiologically  considered,  are  pauses,  the  average 
length  of  which  varies  for  the  different  marks,  as  has  been  shown 
above. 

It  is  largely  upon  the  basis  of  these  three  characteristics,  that  a  listener 
can  punctuate  the  speech  of  a  lecturer,  who  is  observing  in  his  speech, 
evidently  unconsciously,  the  laws  of  the  physiology  of  the  punctua- 
tion mark. 

Hence  a  given  punctuation  mark  is  on  the  one  hand  a  visible  symbol, 
directly  perceived  by  the  eye,  or  represented  to  the  imagination — how- 
ever vaguely — which  signifies  to  the  reader  a  turn  or  break  in  the  move- 
ment of  thought ;  and,  on  the  other,  an  auditory  image  which,  as  a 
moment  in  the  physiological  process  of  speech,  is  distinguished  by 
changes  in  duration  of  pause,  in  pitch  and  quality  of  sound.  In  these 
respects  it  is  a  mental  item,  representing  quantitative  and  qualitative 
peculiarities. 

F.   O     roid  intervals. 

By  a  centroid  interval  is  .iderstood  the  interim,  spatial  upon  the 
page  to  the  eye,  temporal  i'  -peech  to  the  ear,  which  stretches  between 
two  successive  centroids,  i  .,  from  centroid  a,  to  centroid  b,  from  cen- 


104  /•  E-   Wallace  Wallin, 

troid  b  to  centroid  c,  and  so  on.      Hence  every  centroid  interval  in- 
cludes one  centroid. 

According  to  BRUCKE  the  centroid  interval  lies  between  two  "Arsen- 
gipfeln' '  ;  according  to  MINOR,  it  begins  with  the  syllable  standing  in 
arsis  ;  and  according  to  MEYER/  when  the  beginning  of  the  arsis  coin- 
cides with  the  beginning  of  a  syllable,  and  the  end  of  the  thesis  with 
the  end  of  a  syllable,  the  limits  of  the  foot  and  syllable  coincide. 
MEUMANN2and  BOLTON  3  find  experimentally  that  accented  sounds  oc- 
cupy the  first  place  in  the  interval.  Our  measurements  extend  as 
nearly  as  possible  between  two  successive  centroids. 

In  music  the  centroid  interval  is  popularly  designated  a  bar ;  in  poetry, 
a  foot  or  a  measure ;  and  in  prose  it  has  no  distinctive  name. 

The  centroids  of  speech  and  music  are,  as  centroids,  one  and  the 
same.  The  intervals  between  them  are  also  as  intervals,  identical.  All 
centroids  can  be  subsumed  under  the  laws  of  centroid  composition ;  all 
the  intervals,  under  those  of  centroid-interval  composition. 

Hence  the  term  centroid  interval  is  applicable  to  all  sorts  of  human 
utterance — poetry,  prose  and  music.  No  justification  exists  for  drawing 
hard  and  fast  lines  between  either  the  centroids  or  centroid  intervals  of 
these,  although  slight  differences  may,  and  do,  obtain  between  the  regu- 
larity of  the  intervals  and  the  relation  of  the  elements  in  the  centroids 
of  poetry,  prose  and  music. 

The  composition  of  centroid  intervals.  — Only  two  kinds  of  materials  can 
enter  into  their  composition — sounds  and  silences,  or  syllables  and 
pauses.  A  centroid  interval  may  be  composed  purely  of  a  sound- 
plenum,  though  not  of  a  pause-plenum.  It  must  always  contain  a  certain 
quantum  of  sound. 

Centroid  intervals  consisting  of  sounds,  or  syllables,  only  may  be 
called  sound- centroid  intervals  ;  those  of  sounds  and  silences,  or  syllables 
and  pauses,  composite- centroid  intervals. 

Sound-centroid  intervals  may  be  divided  into  the  following  varieties  : 
(i)  \-sy liable  intervals.  Here  the  centroid  syllables  are  directly  con- 
tiguous; no  unemphatic  syllable  or  pause  intervenes  between  them. 
Hence  the  interval  consists  simply  of  one  centroidal  syllable.  The 
existence  of  such  intervals  has  been  both  denied*  and  affirmed.5  The 

1  MEYER,  Beitrdge  zur  deutschen  Metrik,  Neuere  Sprachen,  1898  VI  136-138. 

2  MEUMANN,  (Jntersuchungen  zur  Psychologic  und  Aesthetik  des  Rhythmus,    Philos. 
Stud.,  1894  X  303. 

3  BOLTON,  Rhythm,  Am.  Jour.  Psych.,  1893  VI  222.  • 

4  ABBOTT  AND  SEELEY,  English  Lessons  for  English  People,  154,  Boston  1880. 
5 MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  III,  London  1886. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  105 

records  furnish  numerous  instances  of  this  type.  (2)  2-syllable,  con- 
taining an  intervening  syllable,  or  one  centroidal  and  one  non-centroidal 
syllable.  (3)  3- syllable,  composed  of  one  centroidal  and  two  non-cen- 
troidal syllables.  (4)  \-syllable,  consisting  of  one  centroidal  and  three 
non-centroidal  syllables.  (5)  ^-syllable  centroid  intervals,  consisting 
of  one  centroidal  and  four  non-centroidal  syllables.  These  are  exceed- 
ingly rare ;  the  number  in  the  records  is  too  small  for  purposes  of  study. 
GURNEY  *  holds  that  no  centroid  interval  can  be  composed  of  more  than 
one  centroidal  and  four  non-centroidal  syllables;  and  MAYOR,2  that  even 
three  consecutive  syllables  without  a  metrical  accent  is  impossible. 

The  composite-centroid  intervals  may  be  divided  as  follows:  (i) 
\-pause-i-syllable  intervals,  consisting  of  one  pause  in  addition  to  the 
centroidal  syllable.  (2)  \-pause-2-syllable,  consisting  of  one  pause,  one 
centroidal  and  one  non-centroidal  syllable,  the^ pause  preceding  or  follow- 
ing the  unemphatic  syllable.  (3)  \-pause-$- syllable,  composed  of  one 
pause,  one  centroidal  and  two  non-centroidal  syllables.  (4)  \-pausc- 4- 
syllable,  composed  of  one  pause,  one  centroidal  and  three  non-centroidal 
syllables.  (5)  \-pausc-$-sy  liable,  containing  one  pause,  one  centroidal 
and  four  non-centroidal  syllables. 

The  records  furnish  instances,  too  scant  for  purposes  of  study,  of  other 
modes  of  composition,  such  as  2 -pause- 2 -syllable,  and  2 -pause- 1 -syllable 
centroid  intervals. 

The  lengths  of  each  variety  of  the  two  groups  of  centroid  intervals  were 
measured. 

Results. — The  study  is  based  on  69  i-syllable,  238  2-syllable,  47 
3-syllable  and  12  4-syllable  intervals. 

The  average  duration  of  the  sound-centroid  intervals  of  speech  is  about 
o.5is.  This  is  about  the  same  as  Martius'  period  for  subjective  rhyth- 
misation  (0.50*).  The  average  for  the  i -syllable  intervals  was  o.32s ;  for 
the  2-syllable,  0.44';  for  the  3-syllable,  0.62";  for  the  4-syllable,  o.69s. 

Any  i -syllable  interval  occurring  in  speech  may  be  presumed  to  fall 
within  the  limits  of  about  0.14"  and  o-56s  (range,  o.42s);  any  2-syllable, 
within  o.i8s  and  0.79"  (range,  o.6is);  and  any  3-syllable,  within  o.37s 
and  o.97s  (range,  o.6os).  (For  the  4-syllable  interval  the  measurements 
are  insufficient).  Any  one  of  the  different  varieties  may  be  presumed  to 
fall  within  0.14"  and  0.97"  (range,  0.83"). 

The  range  for  the  averages  of  different  records  is  about  as  follows  :  For 
i -syllable  intervals,  o.i8s  (from  0.2 5s  to  0.43');  for  2-syllable,  0.17* 
(from  0.36'  to  o.53s);  f°r  3-syllable,  0.40"  (from  o.49s  to  0.89");  and 

1  GURNEY,  The  Power  of  Sound,  433,  London  1880. 

2  MAYOR,  Chapters  on  English  Metre,  III,  London  1886. 


io6  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

Measurements  of  sound-centroid  intervals. 
TABLE  L. 

i-syllable  sound-centroid  intervals. 


Subject. 

a 

P 

^ 
a 

e                    c 

n 

J  M.  T. 

0.28 

0.05 

0.17 

+  0.45              -f 

14 

—  0.14 

C.    O.B 

0.25 

0.05 

O.2O 

+  0-43             + 

14 

—  0.16 

W.  W. 

0.31 

0.05 

0.16 

-f  0.47             4- 

17 

—  0.18 

E.  W.  S. 

0.40 

0.03 

0.07 

0 

2 

A.  1).  B.A 

0.27 

2 

G.  A.  A. 

0.30 

0.05 

0.18 

+  0.47          + 

5 

—  O.22 

W.  L.  P. 

0.29 

0.07 

0.24 

+  0.4I                  4- 

3 

—  0.22 

C.  O.  S. 

0.36 

0.08 

O.22 

-f-  0.50 

5 

—  0.20 

S.  I. 

0.38 

0.05 

0.13 

+  0.47                 -f 

3 

—  0.32 

O.  E.  S. 

0.43 

0.05 

O.  II 

+  0.56                 4- 

4 

—  0-34 

Av. 

0.32 

0.05 

0.16 

TABLE  LI. 

2-syllable  sound-centroid 

intervals. 

Subject. 

a 

P 

I 

a 

e                    c 

n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.46 

0.08 

0.17 

+  0.75              4- 

17 

—  0.25 

C.  O. 

0.36 

0.06 

0.16 

+  0.54             o 

H 

—  0.18 

S.  I. 

0-43 

0.04 

0.09 

+  °-52            + 

6 

—  0-35 

O.  E.  S. 

0.48 

0.09 

0.18 

-f  0.65 

8 

—  0.21 

W.  W. 

0.42 

0.07 

0.16 

+  0.66            4- 

42 

—  0.20 

A.  D.  B.A 

0-53 

O.IO 

0.18 

4-0.79                  4- 

6 

—  0.31 

E.  W.  S. 

0.44 

60 

G.  A.  A. 

0.41 

33 

W.  L.  P. 

0.41 

26 

C.  O.  S. 

0.52 

26 

Av. 

0.44 

0.07 

0.15 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech. 


107 


TABLE  LII. 

3 -syllable  sound- centroid  intervals. 


Subject. 

a 

P 

i 

a 

e 

c                n 

W.  W. 

0.72 

0.08 

O.II 

+  0.97 

+              5 

—  0.58 

E.  W.  S. 

0.49 

0.04 

0.08 

+  0.56 

12 

—  0.37 

A.  D.  B.A 

0.56 

0.14 

0.25 

+  0.79 

+              3 

—  0.37 

G.  A.  A. 

0.51 

0.05 

0.09 

+  0.62 

10 

—  0.37 

W.  L.  P. 

0.60 

0.08 

0.13 

+  0.70 

4 

—  0.41 

c.  o.  s. 

0.63 

0.08 

0.12 

+  0.75 

—              8 

—  0-37 

S.  I. 

0.61 

0.06 

0.09 

+  0.70 

3 

—  0.50 

O.  E.  S. 

0.89 

2 

Av. 

0.62 

0.07 

0.12 

TABLE  LIII. 

^.-syllable 

sound-  centroid  intervals. 

Subject. 

a 

P 

i 

a 

e 

c              n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.72 

I 

C.  0. 

0.60 

I 

G.  A.  A. 

0.65 

O.O2 

0.03 

+  0.70 

+            3 

—  0.62 

W.  L.  P. 

0.68 

0.08 

O.II 

+  0.77 

3 

—  0-54 

C.  0.  S. 

0.83 

2 

S.  I. 

0.62 

I 

0.  E.  S. 

0.78 

I 

Av. 

0.69 

0.05 

0.07 

Unit  of  measurement,  Is. 

a,  average  duration. 

p,  immediate  probable  error. 

,  relative  immediate  probable  error. 


e,  extreme  intervals. 
c ,  character  of  greater  extreme. 
n,  number  of  intervals. 


io8  /.  E.  Wallace  Wallin, 

Measurements  of  composite- centroid  intervals. 
TABLE  LIV. 

i -pause- i-sy liable  comp^site-centroid  intervals. 


Subject. 

a 

P 

I 
a 

e                    c 

n 

E.  W.  S. 

0.74 

O.II 

0.14 

+  I.I2                 + 

II 

—  0.52 

A.  D.  B.A 

0.66 

I 

W.  W. 

0.98 

0.14 

0.14 

+  i-47             + 

II 

—  0.72 

J.  M.  T.c 

0.92 

0.08 

0.08 

+  1.04 

5 

—  0.77- 

C.  O..JB 

0.64 

0.16 

0.25 

+1.02                 + 

6 

-0.43 

W.  L.  P. 

1-34 

0.19 

0.14 

+  1-75            + 

,5 

—  1.  00 

C.  0.  S. 

o.75 

0.32 

0.42 

2 

S.  I. 

0.47 

I 

O.  E.  S. 

0.65 

I 

Av. 

0.68 

0.16 

0.19 

' 

TABLE  LV. 

i  -pause- 

•2-  syllable 

composite-  centroid  intervals. 

Subject. 

a 

P 

i 

a 

e                     c 

n 

E.  W.  S. 

0.71 

0.08 

O.II 

+  0.89 

13 

—  0.50 

A.  D.  B. 

1.07 

0.28 

0.26 

+  1.68             + 

7 

—  0.70 

W.  W. 

0.91 

0.17 

0.18 

+  1.66            + 

25 

—  0.56 

J.M.T.O 

o-79 

0.15 

0.19 

+  1.04 

7 

—  0.47 

C.  0.£ 

0-75 

0.13 

0.17 

+  1.06 

10 

—  0.43 

G.  A.  A. 

o-95 

0.17 

0.17 

+  1-47            + 

H 

—  0.62 

W.  L.  P. 

1.26 

0.20 

0.15 

+  1.66            + 

7 

—  0.68 

C.  O.  S. 

0.78 

O.2I 

0.26 

+  I-45            -f 

ii 

—  0.47 

S.  I. 

0.82 

2 

O.  E.  S. 

0.90 

3 

Av.  0.89  0.17  o.  18 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech. 


109 


TABLE  LVI. 

i-pause-j-syllable  composite-centroid  intervals. 


Subject. 

a 

/                                         e                    c 

n 

E.  W.  S. 

0-75 

2 

A.  D.  E.A 

0.82 

0.25             0.30             +1.35             + 

4 

—  0-45 

W.  W. 

1.31 

I 

G.  A.  A. 

0.86 

0.34             0.39             +1-47             + 

3 

—  0.50 

W.  L.  P. 

0.90 

0.15             o.  16             +1.29             + 

5 

—  0.70 

C.  O.  S. 

0.92 

0.14          0.15           H-  1.25           -}- 

4 

—0.77 

S.  I. 

0-75 

i 

Av. 

0.91 

0.22                 0.25 

TABLE  LVII. 

i  -pa  use  -4- 

•syllable  composite-centroid  intervals. 

Subject. 

a 

>          Pa 

n 

G.  A.  A. 

1.05 

0.15              0.14             -|-  1.30              -{- 

3 

—  0.85 

W.  L.  P. 

i-93 

i 

S.  I. 

°-95 

0.21                 0.22                                                   0 

2 

O.  E.  S. 

1.04 

0.13                 0.12                                                   0 

2 

Av. 

1.24 

O.I  6                 O.l6 

TABLE  LVIII. 

I  -pause-j-  syllable  composite-centroid  intervals. 

Subject. 

P- 
a                  p                                    n 
a 

S.  L 

I.  O2                 O.2I                 O.2O                 2 

O.  E.  S. 

1.26                 0.07                 005                 2 

Av. 

I.I4                 O.I4                 O.I2 

Unit  of  measurement,  Is. 

a,  average  duration. 

p,  immediate  probable  error. 


e,  extreme  intervals. 
c,  character  of  greater  extreme. 
n,  number  of  intervals. 


—  ,  relative  immediate  probable  error. 


no  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

for  4-syllable  intervals,  0.23"  (from  o.6os  to  0.83').  The  range  appears 
to  be. highest  for  the  average  3- syllable  intervals. 

The  length  of  the  average  sound-centroid  interval  is  invariably  pro- 
portioned to  the  number  of  syllables  of  which  it  is  composed.  This  is 
true  alike  of  the  reading  scansion  of  poetry  and  prose.  Single  intervals 
frequently  depart  from  this  rule. 

The  addition  of  a  syllable  to  sound-centroid  intervals  increases  their 
average  duration  about  50%.  The  addition  to  the  3 -syllable  interval 
appears  to  result  in  the  smallest,  and  to  the  2 -syllable,  in  the  largest 
increment.  (Average  2-syllable,  37%  longer  than  i-syllable;  3-syl- 
lable,  40  ffo  longer  than  2-syllable;  4-syllable,  11%  longer  than  3 -syl- 
lable.) 

The  difference  between  the  lengths  of  the  different  intervals  appears 
to  be  very  slightly  larger  in  poetry  than  in  prose. 

No  sound-centroid  intervals  are  of  precisely  the  same  length.  The 
average  inequality  of  the  four  kinds  is  about  o.o6s,  or  a  trifle  over  12% 
of  the  duration.  Apparently  it  is  very  slightly  smaller  for  the  longer 
than  the  shorter  intervals. 

The  extreme  deviations  of  the  i -syllable  (75%  =  -}-,  u%  =  — , 
n%  =  o)  and  2-syllable  (66%  =  -j-,  16%  =  — ,  16%  =  o)  intervals 
are  predominantly  extremes  of  excess.  For  the  others  (for  3 -syllable, 
28%  =  -f,  71%  =  — )  the  predominant  extremes  are  liable  to  be  those 
of  deficiency.  Of  all  the  varieties,  58  %  were  extremes  of  excess,  33  %  of 
deficiency,  and  9  %  were  equal. 

The  2-syllable  interval  is  the  predominant  sound-centroid  interval  of 
speech.  This  is  true  alike  of  prose  and  dactylic  and  trochaic  verse. 
(For  poetry  and  prose,  65%  =  2-syllable ;  18%,  i  syllable ;  13%, 
3-syllable;  3%,  4-syllable).  The  5-syllable  and  4-syllable  are  the 
most  infrequent.  They  seem  to  be  less  frequent  in  poetry  than  in 
prose. 

According  to  the  criterion  of  10%  of  irregularity,  n%  of  the 
i -syllable,  16%  of  the  2-syllable  and  43%  of  the  3-syllable  sound-cen- 
troid intervals  were  rhythmically  coordinated  in  length.  The  large  per- 
centage for  the,  3-syllable  may  indicate  that  centroid  intervals  of  about 
o.65s  are  most  easily  rhythmized.  For  all  varieties  of  sound-centroid  in- 
tervals the  figure  is  about  25%. 

The  study  of  the  composite  intervals  is  based  on  the  measurement  of 
43  i -pause -i -syllable,  99  i-pause-2 -syllable,  20  i -pauses-syllable,  8 
i -pause-4-syllable  and  4  i -pause- 5 -syllable  intervals. 

The  average  duration  of  the  five  varieties  of  these  intervals  in  speech 
was  about  0.9 7s. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  in 

It  seems  to  be  larger  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  syllables  of  which 
the  interval  is  composed.  This  rule  meets  with  many  variations  in  the 
individual  records. 

The  difference  between  the  averages  of  all  the  i -pause- 1- syllable  and 
the  i -pause -2 -syllable  intervals  was  o.2is;  between  the  latter  and  the  i- 
pause-3-syllable,  0.02". 

Any  single  one  of  the  five  varieties  occurring  in  ordinary  speech  may 
be  presumed  to  fall  within  the  limits  of  0.43"  and  i-93s  (a  range  of 
i.5o8).  The  range  for  the  different  varieties  decreased  progressively 
as  the  number  of  components  increased.  [Extremes  for  i -pause- 1- 
syllable=i.75s  and  o.43s  (range,  i-32s)  ;  for  i-pause  2-syllable=i.66s 
and  o.43s  (range>  I-23s)j  f°r  i-pause-3-syllable=  1.47*  and  0.45" 
(range,  i.o2s)  ;  for  i-pause-4-syllable  =  1.93*  and  0.85"  (range, 
i.o8s).] 

The  longest  and  shortest  averages  were:  for  the  i -pause- 1 -syllable 
interval,  1.34"  and  0.47"  (range,  0.87")  ;  for  the  i -pause- 2 -syllable, 
i.26s  and  0.71"  (range,  0.55")  ;  for  the  i-pause-3 -sellable,  i.3is  and 
0.75®  (range,  0.56").  The  different  records  of  the  same  person,  as  well 
as  those  of  different  persons,  gave  a  wide  range  of  differences  for  the 
lengths  of  the  different  averages. 

Approximately  80%  of  the  extremes  of  the  i -pause- 1 -syllable,  and 
62%  of  the  i -pause- 2 -syllable  intervals  were  extremes  of  excess.  The 
balance  were  deficiency  extremes.  Of  all  the  different  varieties, 
about  70%  were  extremes  of  excess,  20%  of  deficiency  and  10%  of 
equality. 

No  intervals  are  of  equal  duration.  The  average  inequality  for  the 
five  different  modes  of  composition  was  about  0.17",  or  18%  of  the 
duration. 

The  most  frequent  mode  of  composition,  both  in  prose  and  in  poetry, 
was  the  i-pause-2 -syllable.  It  was  about  8%  more  frequent  in  the  records 
of  poetry  than  in  those  of  prose  (52%  of  all  modes). 

The  i -pause-5 -syllable,  followed  by  the  i-pause-4-syllable,  was  the  most 
infrequent  mode  of  collocation.  Both  were  less  frequent  in  poetry  than  in 
prose.  (In  records  of  prose,  the  former  =  4%,  the  latter  11%  ;  in  those 
of  poetry  both  =  o%.) 

On  the  basis  of  the  10%  standard,  16%  of  the  i -pause -i -syllable, 
6%  of  the  i -pause -2 -syllable  and  9%  of  all  composite-centroid  intervals 
are  rhythmically  coordinated. 

Comparison  of  sound  centroid  and  composite-centroid  intervals. — The 
average  composite-centroid  interval  of  speech  occupies  about  1.90  times 
more  time  than  the  sound-centroid  interval. 


H2  /.  E,    Wallace  Wallin, 

The  extremes  of  both  are  predominantly  extremes  of  excess,  the  per- 
centage for  the  composite  being  about  1.20  times  higher  than  for  the 
sound-centroid  intervals. 

The  range  for  a  given  composite  interval  of  speech  is  likely  to  be  about 
i. 80  times  larger  than  that  for  a  given  sound-centroid  interval. 

The  latter  is  relatively  one  and  a  half  times  more  regular  than  the 
former. 

The  difference  in  the  length  of  the  several  modes  of  composition  of 
the  two  kinds  of 'intervals  is  more  pronounced,  and  less  variable,  in  the 
case  of  the  sound-centroid  intervals. 

In  both,  the  2-syllable  mode  of  composition  (over  50%  of  all  modes) 
occurs  most  frequently  and  the  5-  and  4-syllable  combination  least  fre- 
quently. 

(#)  The  distribution  of  the  syllables  of  centroid  intervals. — Modes  of 
distribution.  In  the  i -syllable  interval,  the  centroid  extends  throughout 
its  entire  length.  This  interval  is  customarily  called  a  spondee.  The 
definition  of  this  as  "  a  foot  consisting  of  two  equally  accented  syllables," 
is  based  upon  the  misconception  that  a  centroid  interval  consists  of  more 
than  one  centroid.  When  the  components  of  a  series  of  intervals  are 
equally  strong  (are  real  centroids  as  the  theory  supposes)  each  cen- 
troid constitutes  a  so-called  foot :  there  is  no  reason  for  including  two 
centroids  in  the  interval,  rather  than  three  or  four,  or  all  in  a  spondaic 
verse.  The  spondee  of  prosody  is  thus  based  upon  a  misconception  and 
a  certain  arbitrariness.  The  spondee,  to  mean  anything,  should  signify 
a  i -syllable  centroid  interval;  and  as  signifying  this,  it  may  be  a  con- 
venient term.  It  is  arbitrary  and  unwarranted  to  include  two  centroid 
intervals  in  one  interval. 

The  i -syllable  interval  is  limited  to  short  sequences.  In  long  ones  the 
tendency  is  to  so  emphasize  certain  of  the  centroids  as  to  make  the  others 
subordinate. 

The  2-syllable  interval  admits  of  two  situations  :  (i)  a  non-centroidal 
followed  by  a  centroidal  syllable  (the  iambus,  -  -).  Here  the  centroid 
closes  the  interval,  unlike  the  next;  (2)  a  centroidal  followed  by  a 
non-centroidal  syllable  (the  trochee,  -  -). 

The  components  of  the  3-syllable  interval  admit  of  this  distribution  : 
(i)  two  non-centroidal  syllables  followed  by  one  centroidal  (the  ana- 
pest,  ~  -  -)  ;  (2)  one  centroidal  followed  by  two  non-centroidal  syl- 
lables (the  dactyl,  -  ~  ~)  ;  (3)  one  non-centroidal,  one  centroidal  and 
one  non-centroidal  syllable  (the  amphibrach  or  amphiambus,  ~  -). 

In  the  4-syllable  interval  this  distribution  is  possible:  (i)  one  cen- 
troidal followed  by  three  non-centroidal  syllables;  (2)  three  non-cen- 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  i  i  3 

troidal  syllables  followed  by  one  centroidal.  This  interval  appears  to  be 
generally  the  opening  interval  of  a  sequence.  No  names  have  been 
applied  to  these  two  modes  ;  (3)  one  centroidal,  two  non-centroidal,  fol- 
lowed by  one  centroidal  syllable,  (the  choriamb,  -  -  -,  in  ancient  pros- 
ody). This  mode  is  spurious,  if  the  centroidal  syllables  are  genuine 
centroids. 

Bearing  on  the  conceptions  and  nomenclature  of  prosody.—  Our  treatment 
of  the  centroid  and  centroid  interval  suggests  two  general  lines  of  criticism. 

First,  as  long  ago  pointed  out  by  SHELLEY/  the  distinction  between 
"  measured"  and  "unmeasured"  speech  is  unscientific.  Both  prose 
and  poetry  contain  centroids  and  centroid  intervals,  following  the  same 
laws  of  composition  and  distribution.  It  is  inadmissible  to  restrict  the 
application  of  "measure"  or  "foot"  to  poetry  alone.  Centroid 
intervals  pervade  all  uttered  language. 

Second,  as  pointed  out  by  GURNEY,  the  terms  "foot,"  "measure" 
or  "bar"  are  inapt.  "The  arrangement  of  the  foot  is  a  mere  matter 
of  the  eye.  Nothing  can  prevent  ictus  from  being  ictus."  The  funda- 
mental concept  of  the  centroid  interval  in  speech  is  that  of  a  unitary 
whole,  juxtaposed  to,  and  coalescent  with,  other  similar  wholes,  requir- 
ing a  portion  of  time  for  the  voice  to  pass  over  its  sounds.  These 
intervals  between  force  centers  may  be  called  centroid-intervals,  bars, 
feet,  or  measures.  But,  unless  interrupted  by  pauses,  no  divisions  or 
"bars  "  exist  between  them.  Nor  are  centroid-intervals  to  be  conceived 
as  a  succession  of  bars  of  invariable  length,  nor  as  "feet"  of  similar 
length,  nor  as  successive  quanta  of  time  conforming  to  an  invariable 
"  measure. ' '  Moreover,  these  terms,  besides  being  customarily  restricted 
to  poetry,  are  applied  with  different  meanings  to  classical  and  modern 

poetry. 3  "In  English  poetry the  names  of  feet  denote  groups  of 

accented  and  non -accented  syllables,  without  reference  to  quantity" 
(ABBOTT  and  SEELEY).  On  the  whole,  the  term  centroid  interval  seems 
preferable. 

Third,  a  convenient  nomenclature  for  the  different  modes  of  distribu- 
tion of  the  centroidal  and  non-centroidal  syllables  of  the  intervals  is  desira- 
ble. The  old  terminology  of  prosody  is  perhaps  associated  with  mis- 
conceptions, as  already  indicated  with  reference  to  the  spondee  and 
choriamb. 

Fourth,  there  is  no  physical  distinction  between  the  several  types  of 
the  different  modes  of  distribution.  There  may  be  a  mental,  or  felt, 

SHELLEY,  A  Defense  of  Poetry,  Works,  VII  6,  London  1880. 

2  GURNEY,  The  Power  of  Sound,  426,  London  1880. 

3  ELLIS,  The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  5,  London  i8?4. 


ii4  /•  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

difference  between  the  iambus  and  trochee,  and  the  anapest  and  dactyl ; 
but  physical  measurements  of  them  always  extend  from  centroid  to  cen- 
troid, independently  of  type  differences.  The  modes  of  distribution  are, 
upon  the  whole,  the  same  in  prose  and  poetry.  Prose,  however,  observes 
no  systematic  arrangement  of  the  different  kinds  of  intervals  throughout 
the  sentences  in  this  respect.  In  poetry,  the  verses  of  a  given  stanza 
are  supposed  to  consist  of  intervals  of  the  same  mode  of  distribution,  or, 
if  of  different  modes,  to  follow  an  orderly  arrangement. 

The  succession  or  recurrence  of  centroid  intervals. — As  recurrences 
within  sequences,  they  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.  In  the  complex 
centroid  intervals  are  included  all  the  intervals  occurring  between  the 
first  and  the  last  centroid  of  a  given  record,  irrespective  of  the  composi- 
tion of  the  intervals.  It  includes  sound-centroid  and  composite-centroid 
intervals. 

Simple-centroid  intervals  include  all  those  occurring  within  expiration 
groups,  or  all  the  varieties  of  sound-centroid  intervals.  The  latter  were 
studied,  not  as  successive  members  of  rhythmical  sequences,  but  as  in- 
tervals, whether  in  isolation  or  succession,  different  in  composition  and 
time- value. 

Each  expiration  group  is  an  uninterrupted  sequence  of  simple-centroid 
intervals.  A  pause  destroys  this  continuity. 

A  comparison  of  these  two  intervals,  the  one  including  pauses,  the  other 
not,  will  determine  the  differentia  of  language  rhythm,  the  function  of  the 
pause,  etc. 

Measurements  of  complex-centroid  intervals. 
TABLE  LIX. 

( Reading  scansion,  English  poetry ) 


+  "5 

-f  102 

+  24 

4-  16 

-f  101 

+  15 


Subject. 

a 

P 

r_ 

a 

e 

J.  W.  R 

0.74 

0.29 

0.38 

1.81 

—  0-33 

E.  W.  S. 

0.52 

o.  10 

0.19 

-f-  1.  12 

—  0.25 

A.  D.  B.A 

0-75 

0.25 

0-33 

+  1.68 

-0.27 

A.  D.  B..B 

0.72 

0.16 

O.  22 

+  1-47 

—0.45 

W.  W. 

O.6o 

0.21 

0.35 

-f  1.66 

-0.18 

A.  R.  P. 

0.51 

0.15 

0.29 

-f  1.20 

—  0.27 

Av. 

0.64 

O.I9 

0.29 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  115 

TABLE  LX. 

{Reading  scansion,  Japanese  poetry} 


Subject. 

a 

, 
a 

e                     c 

n 

J.  K. 

0.32 

0.06            0.18 

+  0-52              + 
—  0.16 

13 

I.  M. 

°-39 

o.  16            0.42 

—o.i  8 

14 

K.  H.  K. 

0.72 

0.27             0.37 

+  1-54            + 

15 

Av. 

—  0.31 

047 

0.16            0.32 

TABLE  LXI. 

{Sing-song  and  doggerel  scansion) 

Subject. 
H.  0. 

a 
0.65 

'       1 

0.16            0.24 

e                   c 

+  1-37              + 

n 
31 

0.  S. 

0.68 

0.13            0.19 

—  0.47 

28 

Av. 

oT66 

—  0.47 

— 

0.14                 0.21 

TABLE  LXII. 

{Routine  scansion) 

Subject. 

a 

p                 t 

e                     c 

n 

E.  H.  T.A 
E.  H.  T.s 

Av. 

0.50 

0.48 

0.07             0.14 

O.O2                 O.O4 

+  0.70 

—  0-31               + 
+  0.58 

—  0-43            + 

15 

15 

0.49 

O.O4                 O.O9 

TABLE  LXIII. 

(Summary  of  complex-centroid  intervals  of  poetry) 

Table. 

a                   p 

L 

a 

LIX. 
LX. 
LXI. 
LXII. 

0.64             0.19 
0.47            0.16 
0.66            0.14 
0.49            0.04 

0.29 
0.32 

0.21 
O.O9 

Av. 

0-55            0.13 

O.22 

n6 


/.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 


TABLE  LXIV. 

(Prose] 

Subject. 

a 

p                  I 

n 

G.  A.  A. 

0-55 

0.19          0.32          4i-47          4 

71 

—  O.22 

W.  L.  P. 

0.70 

0.28          0.40          4  1.93          4 

35 

—0.23 

C.  0.  S. 

0.63 

0.17          0.26          4  J-45           4 

61 

0.20 

Av. 

0.62 

0.21                 0.32 

TABLE  LXV. 

(Poetry  read  as  prose] 

Subject. 

a 

f         1 

n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.46 

0.13              0.27              40.85 

48 

—0.14          4- 

C.  O. 

0.48 

0.14                 0.29                 4  1.02 

47 

—  0.18            4 

W.  C. 

0.62 

0.22                 0.35                  4J-42 

33 

—  0.22                 4 

S. 

0.67 

0.21           0.31           4  1.65 

31 

—  0.27                 4- 

Av. 

0.56 

0.17                 0.30 

TABLE  LXVI. 

(Poetry  read  as  prose  ivithout  punctuation  marks] 

Subject. 

a 

p                  ?-                      e                    c 
a 

n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.45 

0.12              0.26              40.85 

19 

—  0.16             4 

G.  F.  A. 

0.51 

0.16           0.31            4  1.  12 

44 

—  0.24 

B.  S.  G. 

0.66 

0.19          0.28          4  1.5° 

32 

—  o.  20          4~ 

Av. 

o-54 

0.16            0.28 

TABLE  LXVII. 

(  Poetry 

read  as  poetry,  Browning  verses'] 

Subject. 

a 

p                 £                     e-                 c 

n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.52 

0.18            0.34            4-  1.09 

48 

—  0.16            4- 

C.  0. 

0.45 

0.16            0.35             4  i.  06 

47 

—  0.16            4 

Av. 

0.48 

0.17            0.34 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  117 

TABLE  LXVIII. 

{Poetry  read  as  poetry ',  Tennyson  verses} 

t 

a 
0.30  -j-  1.52  33 

—  O.22  -j- 

0.27          -f  1.47  32 

—  0.25  4- 
0.28 

TABLE  LXIX. 

{Summary  of  complex-centroid  intervals  of  verses  of  Browning  and  Tennyson  read  as 

poetry) 


Subject. 

a 

/ 

W.  C. 

0.66 

O.2O 

s. 

0.77 

0.21 

Av. 

0.71 

0.20 

Table. 

a 

P 

I 

a 

LXVII. 
LXVIII. 

0.48 
0.71 

0.17 

0.20 

0.34 
0.28 

Av. 

0-59 

0.18 

0.31 

TABLE  LXX. 

{Prose  read  as  poetry} 


Subject. 

a 

>          7 

e 

c 

n 

S.  I. 

0.61 

O.I7                0.27 

+  1-25 

21 

—  0.32 

+ 

O.  E.  S. 

[0.69 

0.20                 0.29 

+  I-37 

23 

—  0.21 

± 

Av. 

0.65 

0.18            0.28 

TABLE  LXXI. 

{Summary 

of  complex-centroid 

intervals 

speech-) 

Table. 

a 

P    • 

I 
a 

LXIII. 

0-55 

0.13 

O.22 

LXIV. 

0.62 

0.21 

0.32 

LXV. 

0.56 

0.17 

0.30 

LXV1. 

0.54 

0.16 

0.28 

LXIX. 

0-59 

0.18 

0.31 

LXX. 

0.65 

0.18 

0.28 

Av. 

0.58 

0.17 

0.28 

Unit  of  measurement,  Is.  e,  extreme  intervals. 

a,  average  duration.  c,  character  of  greater  extreme. 

/,  immediate  probable  error.  n,  number  of  intervals. 

— ,  relative  immediate  probable  error. 
a 

Results. — The  number  of  intervals  measured  was  1054. 


n8  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

The  duration  of  a  given  complex-centroid  interval  in  speech  will  prob- 
ably fall  somewhere  within  the  limits  of  0.14'  (=  shortest  in  series,  J. 
M.  T.,  Table  LXV.),  and  1.93*  (=  longest  in  series,  W.  L.  P.,  Table 
LXIV. ) ,  a  range  of  about  i  y±.  The  range  for  the  average  interval  of 
different  records  is  about  %  of  this  (from  o.32s,  J.  K.,  Table  LX.  to 
0.75%  A.  D.  B.A,  Table  LIX.),  and  for  the  averages  of  different  sets  of 
records  less  than  |  (from  0.47%  Table  LX.  to  0.71%  Table  LXVIIL). 
The  highest  range  between  the  averages  of  the  selections  read  twice  by 
the  same  person  was  o.ios  (S.);  the  lowest,  0.03"  (C.  O.). 

The  extreme  deviations  of  these  intervals  from  the  average  were  always 
of  the  nature  of  excesses.  In  the  measurements  100  %were  plus  extremes. 
This  may  be  due  more  to  the  pauses  than  the  brevity  of  the  average. 
The  former  enables  the  range  to  be  extended  almost  indefinitely,  while 
it  can  be  only  slightly  abbreviated.  The  extremes  for  the  different  sets, 
may  be  obtained  in  the  e  and  c  columns  of  the  tables. 

The  length  of  the  average  complex-centroid  interval  is  a  little  over  half 
a  second  (0.58"). 

The  averages  in  prose  (0.59")  and  poetry  (0.57")  are  practically  equal 
in  length.  The  tendency,  just  barely  perceptible,  is  to  make  the  inter- 
vals of  prose  the  longer.  This  conclusion  may  only  hold  for  such  inter- 
vals as  were  measured,  which  were  prevailingly  2 -syllable  sound-  and 
i  -pause- 2  -syllable  composite-intervals. 

The  longest  average  in  any  record  was  0.07*  shorter  in  prose  (0.70", 
W.  L.  P.),  than  in  poetry  (S.,  Table  LXVIIL);  and  the  shortest 
average  was  o.ios  shorter  in  the  reading  scansion  of  English  poetry  (C. 
O.,  Table  LXVII.)  than  in  prose  (0.55%  G.  A.  A.). 

The  intervals  composed  regularly  of  two  syllables  (0.71"  =  average  for 
set  of  Tennyson  verses;  o.66s,  same  for  sing-song  and  doggerel  scan- 
sion) are  longer  than  those  composed  of  a  mixture  of  one,  two,  three, 
four  and  five  syllables,  provided  the  number  of  i -syllable  intervals  is 
relatively  larger  than  the  number  of  3-,  4-  and  5 -syllable  intervals. 

The  average  inequality  of  the  lengths  of  complex-centroid  intervals  in 
all  varieties  of  speech  was  about  o.  1 7,"  or  28  %  of  the  length  of  the  average. 

The  regularity  in  a  given  set  of  records  of  a  variety  of  verses  of 
poetry  of  the  predominantly  2 -syllable  type,  scanned  according  to  the 
fourt  ypes  of  scansion,  was  about  8  °/0  higher  than  that  for  the  intervals  in 
a  given  number  and  variety  of  sentences  of  prose,  uttered  in  various 
ways.  The  irregularity  for  the  former  was  22%  (Tables  LIX.,  LXL, 
LXIL,  LXIX.)  ;  of  the  latter,  30%  (Tables  LXIV.,  LXX.). 

The  regularity  in  a  given  set  of  records  of  English  poetry,  the  inter- 
vals of  which  are  mostly  of  the  2 -syllable  pattern,  and  the  scansion  of 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  119 

which  is  rhythmically  free  (reading  scansion,  Table  LIX. )  was  about  3% 
higher  than  that  in  a  corresponding  set  of  records  of  English  prose,  the 
reading  of  which  is  rhythmically  free  (32%,  Table  LXIV. ).  When 
the  scansion  or  reading  is  natural,  artistic  and  rhythmically  free,  the 
complex-centroid  intervals  are  only  slightly  more  regular  in  poetry  than 
in  prose. 

The  most  regular  coordination  of  the  intervals  in  prose  (e.  g.,  C.  O. 
S.,  Table  LXIV.  ;  and  Table  LXX.)  was  superior  to  the  coordination  in 
many  records  of  poetry. 

The  most  regular  coordination  in  poetry  occurs  in  routine  scansion ; 
it  is  never  perfect.  The  lowest  percentage  in  seventeen  records  was  4% 
(Table  LXII.  ;  E.  H.  T.£).  Beating  the  time  with  the  finger  in- 
creased the  regularity  about  three  and  a  half  times. 

The  intervals  in-  the  most  regular  scansion  of  poety  were  about  six  and 
one-half  times  more  regular  than  in  the  most  regular  reading  of  prose. 
Excluding  the  record  of  routine  scansion  with  regulative  concomitant, 
this  is  reduced  to  one  and  six-sevenths. 

The  coordination  in  doggerel  and  in  the  most  regular  specimen  of' 
reading  scansion,  was  about  equally  good  (19%,  O.  S.,  Table  LXI.,  and 
E.  W.  S.,  Table  LIX.).      In  routine  scansion  it  was  about  twice  as  reg- 
ular as  this  (9%,  Table  LXII.). 

In  sing-song  scansion  it  was  slightly  poorer  than  in  doggerel  scansion, 
but  better  than  in  reading  scansion  in  general.  Reading  scansion  repre- 
sents the  highest  degree  of  irregularity  of  any  form  of  scansion. 

The  test  records  of  the  verses  of  Tennyson  and  Browning  indicate 
that  the  highest  regularity  in  reading  scansion  occurs  when  the  intervals 
consist  of  a  uniform  mode  of  composition  or  the  same  number  of 
syllables  (cf.  Tables  LXVII.  and  LXVIIL).  The  difference  in  the  regu- 
larity of  the  renderings  of  the  tests  is  small.  The  absence  of  the  punc- 
tuation marks  did  not  decrease  it. 

The  range  of  irregularity  for  the  records  of  a  given  number  of  per- 
sons will  be  about  0.27"  (from  0.02",  routine  scantion,  Table  LXII.  to 
0.29%  reading  scansion,  J  W.  R.,  Table  LIX.),  or  38%  (0.04  to  0.42, 
reading  scansion,  Japanese  poetry,  I.  M.,  Table  LX. ).  The  range  for 
the  averages  of  the  sets  was  25%  (from  9%,  routine  scansion,  to  34%, 
verses  of  Browning  read  as  poetry,  Table  LXVII. )  ;  and  for  the  same 
persons  repeating  the  same  selections  7  %  (from  i%  to  8%,  in  both  cases, 
J.  M.  T.). 

With  a  standard  of  10%  of  inequality,  the  complex-centroid  inter- 
vals are  rhythmically  coordinated  in  about  6%  of  the  records  of  poetry 
and  in  none  of  those  of  prose.  With  15%  as  the  standard  none  of  the 


120  J.  E.    Wallace  Wallin. 

latter  and  12%  of  the  former  satisfy  the  demands  of  rhythm  (this  is 
exclusive  of  the  test  records  read  as  prose,  both  with  and  without  punc- 
tuation marks). 

The  above  items  for  the  individual  records  (test  records,  records  of 
foreign  languages,  etc. )  may  be  obtained  in  the  tables. 

Measurements  of  simple- centroid  intervals. 
TABLE  LXXII. 

{Reading  scansion ,   English  poetry} 


Subject. 

a 

P 

f_ 

a 

e                    c 

n 

J.  W.  R. 

0.63 

O.I  I 

0.17 

-f-  I   12                 -j- 

91 

—  0-33 

E.  W.  S. 

0.44 

0.05 

O.I  I 

-f  0.62 

74 

—  0.25 

A.  D.  E.A 

0.47 

0.12 

0.25 

+  0.79            + 

ii 

—  0.27 

A.  D.  B.5 

O.6o 

O.O6 

O.  IO 

+  0.81             + 

9 

—  0.27 

W.  W. 

0.41 

0.10 

0.24 

+  0.97             + 

64 

—  0.18 

A.  R.  P. 

0-43 

O.O6 

o  14 

+  0.57 

ii 

—  0.27 

Av. 

0.50 

0.08 

0.17 

TABLE 

LXXIII 

. 

(  Reading 

scansion,  Japanese  and 

Persian  poetry} 

Subject. 

a 

P 

i 

a 

e                    c 

n 

J.  K. 

0.32 

0.06 

0.18 

+  0.52              + 

12 

—  o.i  6 

I.  M. 

0-34 

o.  10 

0.29 

-f  0.60             -f- 

13 

—  0.18 

K.  H.  K. 

0-53 

0.08 

0.15 

-f  0.68  ' 

12 

-0.31 

Av. 

0-39 

0.08 

O.2O 

TABLE 

LXXIV 

(Sing-song  and 

dogger  al  scansion} 

Subject. 

a 

P 

a 

e                    c 

n 

H.  0. 

0.50 

0.04 

0.08 

+  0.55           + 

21 

—  0.47 

0.  S. 

0-59 

0.04 

0.06 

+  0.78              + 

21 

—  0.47 

Av. 

0-54 

0.04 

0.07 

Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  121 


TABLE  LXXV. 

(  Routine  scansion  } 

Subject 

a 

a 

n 

E.  H.  T.A 

0.47 

0.06             o.i  2             -j-°-7°             + 

12 

—  0.31 

E.  H.  T.j, 

0.48 

o.oi            0.03            +0.52 

12 

—  0.43 

Av. 

0.47 

0.03            0.07 

TABLE  LXXVI. 

(  Summa  ry 

of  simple-centroid  intervals  of  poetry} 

' 

Table. 

a                     p                       — 

LXXII. 

0.50                 0.08                  0.17 

LXXIII. 

0.39                       O.O8                       O.2O 

LXXIV. 

0.54                       O.O4                       O.O7 

LXXV. 

o  47                0.03                0.07 

Av. 

0.47                 0.06                0.13 

TABLE  LXXVII. 

(Prose] 

Subject. 

a 

,          l 

n 

G.  A.  A. 

0-44 

O.IO                 O.22                 -f-O.7O                 -f 

51 

—  0.20 

W.  L.  P. 

0.44 

0.12                 0.27                 +0.83                 + 

36 

—  0,23 

C.  O.  S. 

o  54 

O.  II                 O.2O                 -f  O.8o 

42 

—  0.20 

Av. 

047 

o.  ii            0.23 

TABLE  LXXVIII. 

(  Poetry  read  as  prose} 

Subject. 

a 

t         ~ 

n 

].  M.  T. 

0-37 

o.io            0.27            -f-a68            _(- 

34- 

—  0.14 

C.  0. 

0.36 

0.08                  0.22                  -j-  0.62                  4- 

31 

—  0.18 

W.  C. 

0.44 

0.07            0.15            +  0.60 

22 

—  0.  22 

S. 

0.50 

0.06            0.12            +0-75             + 

20 

—  0.27 

Av. 

0.41 

0.08            0.19 

I  22 


/.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 
TABLE  LXXIX. 

(  Poetry  read  as  prose  without  punctuation  murks} 


Subject. 

a 

P 

jr 
a 

e                     c 

n 

G.  F.  A. 

0.38 

0.08 

0.21 

+  0.60              + 

29 

—  0.24 

B.  S.  G. 

0.49 

O.I  I 

0.22 

+  0.75 

17 

—  O.2O 

J.  M.  T. 

0.36 

O.IO 

0.27 

+  0.72                 + 

32 

—  o.i  6 

Av. 

0.41 

0.09 

0.23 

TABLE 

LXXX 

(  Poetry 

read  as  poetry,  verses 

of  Browning} 

Subject. 

a 

P 

I 

a 

e                     c 

n 

J.  M.  T. 

0.38 

0.09 

0.23 

+  0.75               + 

48 

—  0.16 

C.  0. 

0.30 

0.06 

O.2O 

+  0.50            -f 

31 

—  0.16 

Av. 

0.34 

0.07 

0.21 

TABLE 

LXXXI. 

(  Poetry 

read  as  poetry,  verses 

of  Tennyson} 

Subject. 

a 

P 

I 

a 

e                    c 

n 

W.  C. 

0.48 

0.09 

0.18 

+  0.65 

21 

—  0.22 

S. 

0-55 

0.09 

0.16 

+  0.85             o 

18 

—  0.25 

Av. 


0.09 


0.17 


TABLE  LXXXII. 

{Summary  of  simple-centroid  intervals  of  verses  of  Browning  and  Tennyson,  read  as 

poetry} 

Table.  a  p  ~ 

a 

LXXX.  0.34  0.07  0.21 

LXXXI.  0.51  0.09  0.17 

Av.  0.42  0.08  0.19 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  123 

TABLE  LXXXIII. 

(Prose  read  as  poetry} 
Subject.  a  p  —  e  en 

S.  I.  0.46  0.07  0.15  +0.70  -f-  13 

—  0.32 
O.  E.  S.          0.53  0.13  0.24  +0.90  -f-  15 

0.21 


Av.  0.49  o.  10  0.19 

TABLE  LXXXIV. 

(Summary  of  simple-centroid  intervals  of  speech} 


Table. 

a 

P 

f 

LXXVI. 

0.47 

0.06 

0.13 

LXXVII. 

0.47 

0.  II 

0.23 

LXXVIII. 

0.41 

0.08 

0.19 

LXXIX. 

0.41 

0.09 

0.23 

LXXXII. 

0.42 

0.08 

0.19 

LXXXIII. 

0.49 

O.IO 

0.19 

Av. 

0.44 

0.08 

0.19 

Unit  of  measurement,  Is.  *>,  extreme  intervals. 

a,  average  duration.  c,  character  of  greater  extreme. 

p,  immediate  probable  error.  «,  number  of  intervals. 

— ,  relative  immediate  probable  error. 
Results. — Eight  hundred  and  twenty-three  measurements  were  made. 

The  duration  of  a  given  simple-centroid  interval  of  speech  will  pre- 
sumably lie  somewhere  between  0.14*  (J.  M.  T.,  Table  LXXVIII.;  and 
i.i2s  (J.  W.  R.,  Table  LXXIL),  a  range  of  about  i  second.  The  range 
for  the  averages  of  a  given  series  of  records  will  be  about  y$  of  this  (from 
o.3os,  C.  O.,  Table  LXXX.,  to  o.63s  J.  W.  R.,  Table  LXXIL);  and 
for  those  of  different  sets,  about  \  (from  0.34",  verses  of  Browning  read 
as  poetry,  to  0.54",  sing-song  and  doggerel  scansion).  The  highest 
range  for  the  selections  repeated  by  the  same  person  was  o.o6s  (C.  O.); 
the  lowest,  o.ois  (J.  M.  T.).  For  the  complex  intervals  J.  M.  T.'s 
range  was  the  highest ;  here  it  is  the  lowest.  He  seems  most  irregular  in 
his  pauses. 

The  longest  average  for  any  set  of  prose  records  was  0.49"  (Table 
LXXXIII.);  for  poetry,  0.54*  (Table  LXXIV.,  sing-song  and  doggerel 
scansion).  The  shortest  for  poetry  was  0.34"  (Table  LXXX.,  Browning 
verses) .  The  longest  average  for  any  record  was  o.  54s  for  prose  (prayer, 


124  /•   E>    Wallace  Wallin, 

C.  O.  S.,  Table  LXXVIL),  and  o.63s  for  poetry  ( J.  W.  R.,  Table 
LXXIL);  the  shortest  for  prose,  0.44*  (G.  A.  A.,  Table  LXXVIL),  and 
for  poetry,  0.30*  (C.  O.,  Table  LXXX.).  The  range  seems  larger  in 
poetry. 

In  69%  of  the  records  the  largest  deviations  from  the  average  were 
those  of  excess;  in  27%,  of  deficiency;  and  about  3%  were  equal. 

The  average  duration  of  these  intervals  for  different  kinds  of  speech  is 
somewhat  below  half  a  second  (o.44s).  This  corresponds  closely  with 
MEUMANN'S  period  (o.4os)  for  purely  subjective  rhythmisation. 

The  averages  for  a  variety  of  sentences  of  English  prose  (0.48")  and  a 
variety  of  verses  of  English  poetry  (0.46')  are  practically  equal.  The 
tendency,  barely  perceptible,  is  towards  a  longer  interval  in  prose.  The 
intervals  in  the  poetry  measured  were  predominantly  2 -syllable. 

The  average  is  longer  in  verses  consisting  uniformly  of  2 -syllable  inter- 
vals, than  in  verses  consisting  of  a  haphazard  alternation  of  i-,  2-,  3-,  4-, 
and  5 -syllable  intervals,  provided  that  the  number  of  i -syllable  is  higher 
than  the  number  of  3-,  4-,  and  5 -syllable  intervals.  The  average  for 
the  verses  of  Tennyson  was  0.51";  for  those  of  Browning,  0.34* 
(Table  LXXXIL).  The  latter  contained  numerous  i-syllable  inter- 
vals. So  did  those  of  Byron  where  the  average  was  o.4is  (W.  W.,  Table 
LXXIL). 

The  inequality  in  the  lengths  of  these  intervals  in  various  kinds  of 
speech  is  about  o.o8s,  or  19^  of  the  average  length. 

The-  regularity  for  a  given  series  of  records  of  a  variety  of  poetical 
verses  of  the  predominantly  2 -syllable  type  of  intervals,  scanned  accord- 
ing to  the  four  types  of  scansion  will  be  about  8%  higher  than  that  for 
records  of  a  variety  of  prose  sentences  spoken  in  various  ways  (21%, 
av.  irregularity  of  Tables  LXXVIL  and  LXXXIII. ) .  This  is  exclusive  of 
the  Japanese  and  Persian  records.  For  records  of  English  verses  com- 
posed mainly  of  the  2 -syllable  pattern,  the  scansion  of  which  is  rhyth- 
mically free,  it  will  probably  be  about  6%  higher"  than  for  records  of 
English  prose,  the  rendering  of  which  is  rhythmically  free  (irregularity 
2 3%,  Table  LXXVIL). 

The  most  regular  coordinations  in  prose  (15%,  S.  L;  20%,  C.  O.  S.) 
may  often  be  higher  than  some  coordinations  in  poetry  (cf.  A.  D.  B.A, 
W.  W.,  J.  M.  T.,  C.  O.,  etc.). 

The  intervals  in  the  most  regular  type  of  scansion  of  poetry  (E.  H. 
T.B,  Table  LXXV. )  were  about  five  times  more  regular  than  in  the  most 
regular  reading  of  prose  (15%,  S.  L,  Table  LXXXIII. ,  melodious  prose). 
Excluding  the  record  of  routine  scansion  with  regulative  concomitant, 
the  regularity  was  two  and  a  half  times  greater. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  125 

The  most  regular  coordination  of  the  intervals  in  poetry  is  never  per- 
fect. The  lowest  observed  percentage  of  irregularity  in  seventeen  rec- 
ords was  3%. 

The  highest  regularity  occurred  in  the  type  of  routine  scansion 
accompanied  by  beating  time.  This  type  represents  the  acme  of  regu- 
larity in  the  accentual  or  centroid  rhythm  of  speech. 

The  coordination  in  sing-song  (irregularity,  8%)  and  doggerel  scan- 
sion (irregularity,  6%)  may  be  approximately  the  same.  Both  are  fully 
twice  as  irregular  as  mechanically  regulated  (routine)  scansion. 

The  most  regular  coordination  in  reading  scansion  (10%  of  irregu- 
larity, A.  D.  B.5)  is  slightly  inferior  to  the  coordination  in  sing-song 
scansion.  The  regularity  in  reading  scansion  is  the  most  inexact  of  all 
the  types  of  scansion  of  poetry.  It  is  most  exact,  other  things  equal, 
when  the  intervals  are  composed  quite  uniformly  of  the  same  number  of 
syllables  (contrast  Tennyson's  verses  with  Browning's  and  Byron's).  The 
regularity  in  the  reading  of  the  selections  as  prose  and  poetry  was  the 
same.  When  the  punctuation  marks  were  eliminated,  it  was  only  slightly 
increased. 

The  range  in  the  irregularity  of  the  intervals  in  various  kinds  of  speech 
may  be  about  o.  ns  (from  o.ois,  routine  scansion,  to  0.12",  A.  D. 
B.^,  poetry,  and  W.  L.  P.,  prose),  or  26%  (from  3%,  routine  scansion, 
to  29%,  Japanese  poetry).  The  range  for  the  different  sets  was  16% 
(from  7%,  Tables  LXXIV.  and  LXXV.,  to  23%,  Tables  LXXVII.  and 
LXXIX. ),  or  about  2/3  of  the  former  (the  individual  records)  ;  and 
for  the  repeated  readings  by  the  same  person,  2%  (from  2%,  C.  O.,  to 
4%,  J.  M.  T.  andS.). 

According  to  the  10%  standard,  23%  of  the  records  of  poetry  are 
rhythmical,  exclusive  of  records  of  poetry  read  as  prose,  both  with  and 
without  punctuation  marks.  With  a  standard  of  15%,  46%  of  the  rec- 
ords of  poetry,  and  20%  of  the  records  of  prose  (record  of  melodious 
prose),  are  rhythmical.  Even  in  the  latter  case,  more  than  one-half  of 
a  fairly  comprehensive  collection  of  speech  records  was  non-rhythmical. 

Comparison  of  complex-  and  simple-centroid  intervals. 

The  range  for  the  former  was  approximately  1.80  times  that  for  the 
latter. 

The  general  character  of  the  extreme  deviations  was  the  same  for  both. 
For  the  complex,  however,  they  were  uniformly,  for  the  simple  chiefly 
excess  extremes. 

The  average  for  the  complex  was  0.14%  or  1.31  times,  longer  than  for 
the  simple  intervals. 


126  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

The  averages  of  both  were  very  slightly  longer  in  prose  than  in 
poetry.  This  is  probably  due  (i)  to  the  composition  of  the  intervals. 
In  the  prose  records  the  longer  intervals  (3-,  4-,  and  5 -syllable)  were 
relatively  more  numerous.  (2)  The  tendency  in  poetry,  especially  in 
routine  and  doggerel  scansion,  to  rhythmize  the  pause  ;  this  limits  its 
length. 

Both  intervals  had  the  longest  averages  in  verses  consisting  of  the  uni- 
form 2 -syllable  type. 

The  coordination  was  about  i^  times  more  regular  for  the  simple  than 
for  the  complex. 

The  difference  was  less  between  the  regularity  of  the  simple  inter- 
vals in  poetry  and  prose,  than  between  the  regularity  of  the  complex  in 
poetry  and  prose. 

For  the  reading  scansion  of  English  poetry  and  prose,  the  difference 
was  twice  as  large  for  the  complex  as  for  the  simple. 

In  the  most  regular  type  of  scansion,  the  regularity  was  slightly  higher 
for  the  simple  than  the  complex.  The  beating  of  time  increased  the 
regularity  of  the  former  most.  Relatively  to  other  types  of  scanning, 
however,  it  greatly  increased  the  regularity  of  the  complex  intervals. 

The  range  of  irregularity  for  a  variety  of  speech  of  different  persons 
was  about  i^£  times  larger  (1.46)  for  the  complex  than  for  the  simple 
intervals. 

With  a  provisional  standard  of  15%,  the  simple  intervals  were  rhyth- 
mically coordinated  in  about  four  times  as  many  records  of  poetry  as 
were  the  complex. 

General  deduction. — The  most  perfect  manifestation  of  centroid  rhythm 
in  speech  never  reaches  the  zero  point  of  irregularity.  This  point  is 
most  nearly  approached  in  simple-centroid  intervals  of  uniform  compo- 
sition, mechanically  scanned. 

Bearing  on  the  rhythmic  function  of  the  pause. — The  facts  reached  re- 
garding the  duration  and  regularity  of  sound  and  composite,  and  single 
and  complex  intervals  necessitate  a  revision  of  the  prevalent  notion  of 
the  pause  as  compensatory,1  as  the  rhythmical  equivalent  for  a  missing 
syllable  or  a  foot.  POE  2  so  regards  the  caesura.  We  have  seen  that  the 
introduction  of  the  pause  uniformly  disturbs  the  rhythm  of  the  centroids. 
The  records  without  exception  show  this.  The  coordination  of  the 
complex  intervals  was  almost  without  exception  so  irregular  as  to  defy 
rhythmisation.  In  only  two  records  does  the  inequality  fall  to 

•LANJER,  The  Science  of  English  Verse  189,  New  York  1880. 
GUEST,  A  History  of  English  Rhythms,  77,  London  1882. 
2  POE,  The  Rationale  of  Verse,  Works,  VI  89,  Chicago  1895. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  127 

while  for  the  simple  intervals,  there  are  eight  such  records  of  poetry  and 
one  of  prose.  The  pause  constitutes  the  one  rhythmical ;  the  other,  in  the 
main,  non-rhythmical.  It  creates  two  alternating,  though  interpenetrat- 
ing, sequences  within  the  unity  of  the  discourse ;  the  one  consisting  of 
expiration  intervals,  being  rhythmical,  the  one  consisting  of  expiration 
and  vacant  intervals,  being  non-rhythmical. 

We  saw  that  the  terminal  pauses,  which  were  longer  and  more  regular 
than  the  sectional,  unified  the  verses.  The  tables  for  the  sectional 
pauses  and  the  simple  and  complex  intervals  show  that  when  the  number 
of  sectional  pauses  is  large  the  coordination  of  the  intervals  is  poor. 
When  they  occur  quite  regularly  in  long  verses  these  are  split  up  into 
two.  Most  of  those  reading  the  Browning  verses  written  as  prose  who 
made  regular  sectional  pauses,  when  asked  to  write  the  sentences  as 
verses,  doubled  the  number.  Here  the  pauses  segregated  tlje  verses  into 
two  parts.  Both  the  terminal  and  sectional  pauses  may  thus  become 
rhythmically  recurrent,  provided  they  recur  at  fairly  regular  intervals  and 
are  of  fairly  regular  length. 

Rhythmically,  pauses  check  the  continuity  of  the  centroid  rhythm  of 
speech ;  they  limit  the  length  of  centroid  sequences.  This  makes  cen- 
troid rhythm  essentially  discontinuous t  an  alternately  interrupted  and 
recommencing  flow,  an  inter-pause  rhythm.  Mechanical  rhythm,  e.  g. 
clock  ticks,  consists  of  continuous  sequences  of  coordinated  intervals. 

Pauses  also  assist  in  imparting  a  felt  unity  to  sequences  of  several  cen- 
troid intervals,  provided  they  follow  a  certain  law,  whence  arises  a 
secondary  rhythm,  that  of  vacant  and  expiration  intervals.  Thus  we  get 
the  verse  interval  rhythm. 

Psychologically,  the  pause  serves  to  avert  the  monotony  of  long 
sequences  of  regularly  recurrent  stimuli.  The  length  of  these  will  affect 
the  quality  of  the  rhythm.  Too  long  or  too  short  series  are  objectionable. 
This  may  differ  for  different  kinds  of  scansion  and  rhythmisation.  In 
subjective  rhythmisation  a  continuance  of  clicks  for  45  seconds  has  been 
found  favorable,  for  70  seconds  disgusting.1  The  pause  thus  contributes 
change,  variety,  relaxation,  and  also  a  complex  feeling  of  rhythm  due  to 
the  involution  or  interpenetration  of  the  two  orders  of  rhythm. 

Bearing  on  some  phases  of  speech  rhythm.  —  (a)  The  elements  of  rhythm. 
—  Speech  rhythm  has  been  defined  as  a  'Maw  of  succession  "  ( GUEST); 
a  ''principle  of  proportion  introduced  into  language, "  "  inferior  meter  ' ' 
(SEELEY  and  ABBOTT);  "periodic  stimulation  of  sounds  or  of  a  small 
group  of  sounds"  (GURNEY);  "the  succession  and  involution  of  unities, 
that  is,  unities  within  unities,  applicable  to  feet,  verses  and  stanzas ' ' 

1  TITCHENER,  Experimental  Psychology,  I  n  340,  New  York  1901. 


128  J.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

(CORSON);  "a  system  of  accentuation  "  (HEGEL);  "a  succession  of 
tones  in  various  length  and  shortness,  following  in  a  certain  time  form ' ' 
(LOBE);  "the  coordination  of  speech  sounds  in  time  and  duration" 
(LANIER).  In  these  definitions  are  involved  two  theories. 

(i)  The  "time  theory  "  holding  that  the  element  of  time  is  funda- 
mental, and  emphasis  subordinate.  The  sounds  of  a  rhythmical  sequence 
must,  above  all  things,  be  coordinated,  periodical.  LANIER  ]  ("simple 
time  relations  "),  GuRNEv2  ("a  fixed  scheme  of  recurrence"),  BOL- 
TON3  (regular  recurrence  the  most  important  element;  "accentuated 
sounds  form  a  secondary  rhythm  out  of  the  primary"),  HAUPTMANN/ 
WESTPHAL/  LOBE/  HERBART/  LOTZE/  SCHOPENHAUER,*  and  ED- 
WARDS/ may  be  cited  as  representatives. 

(  2 )  The  "  accentnalist  theory, ' '  making  emphasis  the  essence,  and  time 
a  secondary  element.  Some  of  the  exponents  are  GUEST 6  ("accent  the 
sole  principle,"  "  rhythm  of  accent  independent  of  quantity  "),  HEGEL  * 
("rhythm  a  system  of  accentuation"),  GUMMERE/  and  KosTLiN9 
("change  of  accents  of  the  tones"). 

It  is  hard  to  pin  the  writers  down  to  any  one  statement,  but  the  posi- 
tions seem  to  be  as  indicated.  When  accent  is  made  primary  the  ele- 
ment of  time  becomes,  at  best,  merely  "a  regulative  principle  or  a  prin- 
ciple of  embellishment."  The  opposite  rigorist  holds  that  no  number 
of  accents,  nor  manner  of  variation  of  the  elements,  can  render  sounds 
rhythmical  unless  they  are  strictly  periodic. 

The  centroid  theory  of  speech  rhythm  emphasizes  the  truth  contained 
in  both  of  these  theories.  No  recurrence  of  centroids  can  be  rhythmized 
unless  the  length  and  regularity  of  the  intervals  fulfil  the  requirements  of 
the  rhythmical  time-sense.  This  may  differ  slightly  for  different  individ- 
uals. It  may  allow  of  slight  grades  of  rhythm,  bad,  good,  excellent.  At 
a  certain  point,  however,  the  rhythmic  perception  or  feeling  ceases 
entirely. 

The  criterion  of  regularity  may  also  differ  for  the  different  kinds  of 
rhythms,  sensory  and  motor,  speech,  music,  walking,  dancing,  etc.  For 
routine  scansion,  with  the  attention  focused  on  the  regularity,  the  crite- 

1  LANIER,  The  Science  of  English  Verse,  III.,  New  York  1880. 
2GURNEY,  The  Power  of  Sound,  439,  London  1880. 
3BoLTON,  Rhythm,  Am.  Jour.  Psych.,  1893  VI. 

4MEUMANN,  Untersuchnnsen  zur  Psychologie  iind  Aesthetik  des  Rhythinus,  Philos. 
Stud.,  1894  X  250. 

5  GUEST,  A  History  of  English  Rhythm,  108,  London  1882. 

6  GUEST,  as  before,  108-110. 

7  HEGEL,  Aesthetic,  trans,  of  Kedney,  257. 

8 GUMMERE,  Handbook  of  Poetics,  137,  Boston  1885. 
9MEUMANN,  Philos.  Stud.,  1894  X  250. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  129 

rion  may  be  higher  than  for  reading  scansion,  where  the  best  expression 
of  thought  is  essential.  A  variation  (-f-  and  —  )  of  g-1^  of  empty  intervals 
between  clicks  4.27*  in  length  was  always  correctly  noticed  in  the  exper- 
iments of  HALL  and  JASTROW  ;*  one  of  yi-g-,  nearly  always. 

These  requirements,  however,  give  only  subjective  or  objective  period- 
icity. Grouping  may  be  temporally  perfect  or  periodic  (Lanier's  primary 
rhythm),  and  still  not  be  psychologically  rhythmical.  To  constitute 
perceived  rhythms,  some  member  of  the  groups  must  be  accentuated,  at 
least  subjectively.  Walking  may  be  periodic  ;  it  is  not  normally  rhyth- 
mical. It  becomes  rhythmical  when  one  step  is  made  more  energetic, 
or  when  attention  is  given  to  it,  or  a  sound  is  uttered  or  heard  (e.  g.,  a 
drum)  as  it  descends. 

EBBINGHAUS  2  found  that  the  coordination  of  the  lengths  of  syllables 
spoken  loud  was  impossible  without  differences  of  accent :  no  rhythmis- 
ing  of  syllables  mechanically  uttered  was  possible.  In  repeating  the 
numerals  i-io  regularly,  I  could  feel  no  rhythm  until  some  numbers 
were  subordinated,  i.  e.,  formed  into  centroid  intervals.  Then  grouping 
soon  became  inevitable.  A  trained  vocalist  sang  the  vowel  6  into  the 
phonograph  without  interruption  for  nearly  4os.  He  was  told  to  make 
it  perfectly  smooth,  without  modification  in  intensity  and  pitch.  The 
resulting  sound  was  fairly  smooth  at  the  beginning;  after  about  ios 
oscillations  in  the  intensity  were  noticeable.  Speech  as  a  motor  phe- 
nomenon is  necessarily  centroidal. 

Emphasis  is  unavoidably  imposed  upon  certain  members  of  a  sound 
sequence.  Numerous  experiments3  show  that  these  are  always  formed 
into  groups  because  of  subjective  emphasis. 

The  form  of  these  groups  will  depend  upon  representative  factors  aris- 
ing from  the  experience  of  the  subject ;  they  will  conform  to  some  repre- 
sented rhythm  (counting,  beating  time,  clock  beats,  pendulum  swings, 
puffs  of  the  engine,  etc.). 

In  BOLTON'S*  experiments  the  normal,  easiest  or  psychologically  prior 
form  was  the  2 -group  (first  syllable  accented,  trochee)  and  4-group.  The 
3-group  (dactylic  form  easiest)  and  2  -f  3-group  were  readily  suggested, 
but  not  the  5 -group.  HALL  and  JASTROW  5  found  that  in  counting  a 
series  of  sounds  or  clicks  3-  and  4-groups  must  be  farther  apart  than 

1  HALL  AND  JASTROW,  Studies  of  rhythm,  Mind,  1886  XI  61. 

2  MEUMANN,  Philos.  Stud.,  1894  X  423,  424, 
3BOLTON,  Am.  Jour.  Psych.,  VI  145-238. 

EBBINGHAUS  and  DIETZE,  in  MEUMANN,  Philos.  Stud. ,  1894  X  423. 

4  HOLTON,  as  before,  212,  216,  222. 

5  HALL  and  JASTROW,  Studies  of  Rhythm,  Mind,  1886  XI  58,  61. 


130  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin. 

2-groups.  Twenty-four  to  forty  clicks  per  second  were  easily  distin- 
guished by  the  average  ear  [limit  of  ability  to  discriminate  sounds  =  T-|"2 
(HELMHOLTZ)  or  -~\-§  (EXNER)  of  a  second].  Counting,  however,  in- 
volved naming  of  the  clicks.  The  number-names  are  not  of  uniform 
ease  and  length.  This  influenced  the  grouping. 

Thus  the  centroid,  or  the  element  of  emphasis,  is  always  present  in 
speech.  Consciousness  is  centroidal.  Perceived  rhythm  is  a  highly 
regular  alternation  of  intense  and  lesser  intense  states  of  conscious- 
ness. 

(b)  The  nature  of  rhythm. — It  is  a  series  of  mental  events  involving 
affection,  intellection  and  conation.  The  role  of  the  first  has  been 
stated  by  WUNDT  *  (feeling  of  strain  and  expectation,  of  unity,  and  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  emotion),  by  SMITH  2  (rhythm  a  progressive  emotion  with 
coordinated  motor  discharges),  by  MEUMANN  3  (aesthetic  feelings)  and  by 
LIPPS*  (associative  aesthetic  feelings).  The  latter  are  probably  such  as 
proportion,  symmetry,  unity  in  variety,  harmony,  euphony,  beauty,  sub- 
limity. The  emotions  may  be  those  of  different  degrees  of  pleasantness, 
ecstasy,  joy,  vivacity,  erethic  diathesis,  orgasm,  love,  hate,  sweetness, 
well-feeling,  etc.;  and  perhaps  disagreeableness — monotony,  insipidity, 
sadness,  discomfort,  disgust,  etc.  The  sense  feelings  may  include 
smoothness,  assonance,  dissonance,  intense  or  weak,  long  or  short, 
fast  or  slow,  excitations,  freshness  or  tiredness,  muscular  activity  or 
innervation,  tingling,  heightened  temperature  and  blood  pressure, 
etc. 

MEUMANN5  (rhythm  a  perception)  emphasizes  the  role  played  by  intel- 
lection. This  is  best  illustrated  by  the  change  of  grouping  produced  by 
ideation  (association  factor).  This  factor  will  largely  determine  the 
character  of  the  affectional  response  of  the  individual. 

The  present  researches  emphasize  the  factor  of  conation  :  without  sub- 
jective emphasis,  the  centroid,  no  rhythm.  Intellective  perception  alone 
may  perceive  periodicities,  but  not  rhythm  ;  for  this  conative  perception, 
or  intermittent  attention,  aroused  and  sustained  by  feeling,  is  necessary. 
Felt  motor  innervations  are  fundamental  to  rhythmic  perception.  They 
need  not  necessarily  be  movements  or  vaso-motor  discharges,  but  motor 
impulses  (probably  only  mental  beats).  Rhythm  is  a  peculiarly  felt 
motor  perception  of  movement  in  time. 

1  WUNDT,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (Eng.  tr.),  167,  176,  Leipzig  1897. 

2  SMITH,  Philos.  Stud.,  1900  XVI  291. 
3 MEUMANN,  Philos.  Stud.,  1894  X  264. 

*  LIPPS,  Aesthetische  Einfuhlung,  Zeit.  fur  Psychol.  u.  Physiol.,  CXXII  441. 
5  MEUMANN,  as  above,  272,  284. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  131 

VI.    COMPARISON  OF  INTERVALS  IN  SPEECH. 

Tables  of  average  number  of  syllables  per  centroid  and  expiration  interval, 
and  the  interval  of  the  unit  of  measurement  ( Is). 


TABLE  LXXXV. 

(  Poetry"] 

Subject. 

c 

S 

e 

E.  W.  S. 

2.21 

4.22 

6.42 

J.  W.  R. 

2.06 

2.75 

8.77 

A.  D.  B. 

2.15 

2.90 

3-73 

W.  W. 

1.74 

3.01 

4.89 

A.  R.  P. 

2.00 

3-73 

6.00 

H.  0. 

2.09 

3-i6 

5.81 

O.  S. 

2.10 

3.10 

7.80 

J.  M.  T. 

I.56 

2-95 

C.  O.s 

1-56 

3-40 

4.41 

W.  C.B 

1.90 

2  90 

4.26 

S..B 

2.OO 

2.56 

4.26 

G.  F.  A. 

1.65 

3-13 

4.56 

B.  S.  G. 

2.00 

2.99 

4.00 

Av. 

1.92 

3-14 

5-41 

TABLE  LXXXVI. 

(  Prose) 


Subject. 

c 

S 

e 

G.  A.  A. 

2-53 

4.48 

4.48 

W.  L.  P. 

2.20 

3-14 

6.05 

C.  0.  S. 

2.24 

3-53 

6-57 

S.  I. 

2.7J 

4-38 

6-33 

O.  E.  S. 

2-47 

3-54 

6-33 

Av.  2.43  3.81  5.95 

c,  complex  centroid  intervals. 

s,  intervals  of  i§. 

e,  expiration  intervals. 

Results.  — The  average  number  of  syllables  for  each  complex  centroid 
interval  of  all  varieties  of  speech  was  2.17. 

For  the  records  of  poetry  it  was  1.92  ;  for  those  of  prose,  2.43,  the 
latter  being  a  trifle  over  25%  larger  than  the  former.  For  verses  com- 
posed predominantly  of  the  3 -syllable  type  of  intervals,  this  relation 
would  probably  be  reversed.  Since  there  is  no  orderly  arrangement  of 
interval  pattern  in  prose,  the  variation,  while  it  may  be  constant  and 
sometimes  large,  will  in  the  average  be  small  (cf.  records  of  Table 
LXXXVI.).  The  range  between  the  highest  and  lowest  average  for 


1 32  J.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

prose  was  0.51  syllable;  for  poetry,  0.65  syllable.  The  range  for  the 
individual  intervals  was  from  i  to  5  syllables.  A  centroid  interval  in 
speech  may  thus  range  from  a  i -syllable  to  a  5 -syllable. 

The  average  number  of  syllables  per  second  of  time  for  all  kinds  of 
speech  was  3.47  ;  for  the  records  of  poetry,  3.14;  for  those  of  prose, 
3.81,  or  about  20^  more  than  for  poetry. 

The  range  for  the  averages  of  prose  was  1.34  syllable  per  second 
(from  3.14  to  4.48)  ;  for  poetry,  1.66  syllable  (from  2.56  to  4.22),  or 
about  23%  larger  than  the  range  for  prose. 

On  the  basis  of  the  general  average,  the  number  of  syllables  uttered 
per  minute  in  speaking  is  approximately  208.  This  involves  an  equal 
number  of  changes  in  the  action  of  the  vocal  cords.  The  most  rapid 
contractions  in  aspirating  t  and  k  has  been  found  to  never  exceed  6 
double  or  12  single  contractions  per  second.1 

The  average  number  of  syllables  per  expiration  interval  for  all  kinds 
of  speech  was  5.68  ;  for  poetry,  5.41  ;  for  prose  5.95,  or  10^  more  than 
for  poetry. 

The  range  for  the  averages  of  prose  was  1.85  syllable;  of  poetry, 
5.04,  or  nearly  two  and  three-fourths  times  longer  than  the  former. 

This  range  applies  only  to  the  averages  of  ordinary  expiration  inter- 
vals, and  not  to  those  of  maximum  expiration  intervals.  The  following 
test  was  made  :  The  subject,  after  having  inhaled  as  much  air  as  the 
lungs  would  comfortably  hold  (attempting  to  make  each  inhalation 
equal)  read  as  many  of  a  variety  of  short  and  long  words  as  was  possible 
without  replenishing  the  original  supply  of  air.  The  test  was  stopped 
when  fortuitous  inhalations  occurred.  The  tendency  was  to  increase  the 
rate  as  the  context  became  familiar  and  practice  set  in.  All  the  utter- 
ances were  considerably  more  rapid  than  those  in  ordinary  speech. 
Sometimes  this  increased  the  number  of  syllables  ;  frequently  it  produced 
a  more  rapid  expenditure  of  air,  and  decreased  the  number.  Several 
relatively  slow  readings  contained  the  largest  number. 

These  were  the  average  number  of  syllables  for  seven  or  eight  tests  each 
of  ii  subjects:  122,  147,  148,  153,  163,  165,  187,  190,  230,  257,  and  276 
The  general  average  is  182.5.  The  highest  average  came  from  a  trained 
vocalist.  Most  subjects  gained  up  to  a  certain  point  and  then  fell  off. 
The  lowest  percentage  of  gain  was  19  syllables;  the  highest  119.  The 
range  is  154  syllables  (from  122  to  276). 

Compared  with  the  average  normal  interval,  the  average  maximum 
contains  approximately  32  times  as  many  syllables.  The  range  of  a  breath 
group  may  thus  exte'nd  from  i  to  about  175  syllables.  The  normal  is 

1  HALL  AND  JASTROW,  Studies  of  rhythm,  Mind,  1886  XI  59. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  133 

the  stock-in-trade  of  ordinary  speech.  The  maximum  is  perhaps  never 
reached  in  speech.  The  nearest  approach  is  found  in  impassioned 
speech. 

Comparison  of  intervals. — The  average  interval  of  the  second  was  0.60 
syllable  longer  than  the  complex  centroid  interval,  and  o  63  syllable 
shorter  than  the  expiration  interval.  For  the  prose  records,  it  was  0.56 
syllable  longer  than  the  centroid  interval,  and  the  same  shorter  than  the 
expiration  interval.  For  poetry  it  was  0.63  syllable  longer  than  the 
centroid,  and  0.72  syllable  shorter  than  the  expiration  interval. 

The  expiration  intervals  of  poetry  were  2.81  syllables  longer  than  the 
centroid  intervals  of  poetry  and  prose  respectively. 

The  range  between  the  longest  and  shortest  averages  of  the  tables  was  : 
for  the  centroid  interval,  0.58  syllable;  for  the  second,  1.45;  and  for 
the  expiration,  5.04.  The  average  range  for  the  second  was  2.50  sylla- 
bles longer  than  for  the  centroid,  and  4.75  syllables  shorter  than  for  the 
expiration  interval. 

The  difference  between  the  range  of  syllables  for  the  second  and  cen- 
troid interval  was  over  4  times  the  difference  between  the  average  number 
of  syllables  for  each  ;  and  the  same  for  the  second  and  expiration  inter- 
val was  7.5  times  the  difference  between  the  averages  for  each. 

Character  of  the  greater- extreme. — This  was  for  all  the  intervals  of 
speech  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  of  the  nature  of  excess.  In  no  case 
does  the  percentage  fall  below  59%. 

The  extremes  were  relatively  least  frequent  in  the  verse  intervals,  and 
most  frequent  in  the  complex,  vacant,  expiration  and  simple  centroid  in- 
tervals in  the  order  named.  The  converse  order  represents  the  grade  of 
frequency  of  the  deficiency  extremes. 

Only  in  the  expiration  and  simple  centroid  intervals  were  there  any 
equal  extremes,  the  percentage  in  both  cases  being  very  small  (6% 
and  3%). 

May  we  say  that  the  longer  the  average  of  the  interval  the  smaller,  and 
the  shorter  the  larger,  is  the  percentage  of  excess  extremes  ?  The  average 
vacant  and  simple  centroid  intervals  are  equal  in  length,  yet  differ  in  the 
percentage  of  plus  extremes.  The  complex  are  longer,  yet  have  no 
minus  extremes :  all  are  plus.  The  simple  intervals  are  considerably 
shorter  than  the  expiration  and  complex,  yet  have  a  higher  percentage 
of  minus  extremes  than  these — more  than  double  as  many  as  the  vacant 
intervals. 

Hence,  other  things  being  equal,  the  extremes  of  deficiency  are  rela- 
tively most  infrequent  and  those  of  excess  most  frequent,  in  intervals  con- 
taining pauses. 


134  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

Range  of  duration  for  single  intervals.  —  Taking  the  range  for  the  simple 
centroid  (0.98')  as  the  norm,  the  range  for  the  vacant  was  1.37  longer, 
for  the  complex  1.82,  for  the  verse  4.20,  and  for  the  expiration  inter- 
vals 4.72.  The  difference  between  the  longest  (4.65")  and  the  shortest 
range  is  3.57s. 

The  range  for  the  average  of  the  complex  intervals  is  1.30  times  that 
of  the  simple  (=0.33")  ;  for  the  vacant  1.54  times  ;  for  the  expiration 
5.60  times;  and  for  the  verse  10.5  times.  The  longest  range  (3.  47s)  is 
3.14s  longer  than  the  shortest.  The  order  for  the  individual  intervals 
and  the  averages  is  seen  to  differ.  Both  fall  into  two  groups,  the  one  a 
small,  the  other  a  large,  range. 

Average  duration.  —  Taking  the  average  of  the  simple  centroid  as  the 
norm  (o.44s),  the  average  for  the  vacant  was  of  the  same  length  ;  for  the 
complex,  1.31  times  longer;  for  the  composite,  2.20  times  longer;  for 
the  expiration,  2.70  times  longer;  and  for  the  verse  intervals,  6.11 
times  longer. 

With  the  sum  of  the  averages  as  the  unit,  the  verse  interval  consti- 
tutes 42%,  the  expiration  19%,  the  composite  15%,  the  complex  9%, 
and  the  vacant  and  simple  centroid  7%  each,  of  this  unit.  The  aver- 
age for  the  verse  intervals  is  about  2^  times  longer  than  for  the  expira- 
tion. 

The  proportion  between  the  averages  of  the  expiration  and  vacant  in- 
tervals, or  between  the  quantity  of  sound  and  silence  in  speech,  was  as 
2.71  to  i.  Apparently  about  73%  of  the  time  consumed  in  speaking  is 
utilized  in  sound  production  and  in  exhalation,  and  27%  in  pausing. 
Most  pauses  probably  represent  an  inhalation. 

The  proportion  of  sound  to  silence  was  slightly  larger  for  poetry  than 
for  prose.  The  difference  is  negligible.  The  largest  percentage  in 
English  poetry  for  the  expiration  intervals  was  79%  (J.  W.  R.  record)  ; 
the  smallest,  57%  (W.  C.). 

The  average  for  the  composite  intervals  is  nearly  two  and  a  fourth 
times  larger  than  that  for  the  vacant  and  simple.  Hence  the  sounds  in 
the  composite  intervals  occupy  more  time  than  the  silence. 

All  the  above  relations  of  the  intervals  in  the  various  records,  may  be 
obtained  in  the  tables. 

Range  of  irregularity.  —  In  units  of  time,  with  the  range  of  the  simple 
intervals  (o.  i  is)  as  the  norm,  that  of  the  complex  and  vacant  is  each  2.45 
times  larger,  of  the  verse  4.18  times  and  of  the  expiration  7.81  times. 
As  a  fraction  of  the  average  duration  the  range  for  the  simple  (26%)  is 
2^  times  that  for  the  verse;  and  for  the  complex  1.46,  for  the  vacant 
1.65  and  for  the  expiration  1.69  times  that  for  the  simple  intervals. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  sp 

Relative  regularity. — The  average  for  the  verse  intervals  is  2.11  as  reg- 
ular as  for  the  simple  ( 19%  );  for  the  latter  1.47  times  as  regular  as  for  the 
complex,  1.52  as  regular  as  for  the  vacant,  and  1.78  as  regular  as  for  the 
expiration  intervals. 

Percentage  of  records  of  rhythmically  coordinated  intervals. — Applying 
a  10%  standard  of  irregularity,  it  is  as  follows:  For  verse,  59%  ;  simple 
centroid,  14%  ;  expiration,  12%  ;  vacant,  8%,  and  complex  centroid, 
4%.  The  manner  of  coordination  differs  for  the  intervals.  The  ex- 
piration and  vacant  were  picked  out  wherever  they  occurred  in  the 
records.  The  one  intervenes  between  the  other ;  the  tables  do  not 
include  the  measurements  of  the  two  in  one  series.  The  verse  intervals 
are  likewise  separated  by  terminal  pauses.  These  are  not  included  in 
calculating  their  rhythm. 

Bearing  on  metrical  problems. — If  meter  requires  a  relatively  perfect 
coordination  of  intervals,  what  conditions  are  essential  to  fulfil  this  re- 
quirement ?  What  type  of  reading  and  of  interval  most  frequently  and 
fully  satisfies  the  demand  ? 

Types  of  meter. — We  have  seen  that  there  are  two  types  of  speech 
intervals  which,  on  the  basis  of  the  criterion  of  regularity,  may  with 
scientific  precision  be  called  rhythmical,  viz.,  the  verse  and  simple 
centroid  intervals. 

As  affects  the  simple  centroid  intervals,  the  measurements  showed  that 
the  criterion  of  metrical  perfection  was  most  highly  approached  in 
poetry.  The  conditions  for  the  highest  regularity  in  poetry  were  :  ( i ) 
the  distribution  throughout  the  verses  of  centroid  intervals  consisting  of 
the  same  number  of  components;  and  (2)  the  scanning  of  the  verses 
according  to  the  routine  type  of  scansion. 

As  affects  the  phrase  intervals,  the  measurements  showed  that  the  cri- 
terion of  metrical  perfection  was -approached  only  in  the  verse  intervals 
of  poetry,  the  number  of  whose  centroids  was  more  limited  and  regular 
than  in  the  sentences  of  prose.  The  conditions  for  securing  the  high- 
est regularity,  other  things  being  equal,  were :  (i)  limiting  the  duration 
of  the  intervals;  and  (2)  subordinating  the  sectional  to  the  terminal 
pauses,  and  the  sectional  to  the  terminal  centroids,  of  the  intervals. 

Meter  par  excellence — choice  of  types. — Which  of  the  two  types  is  prior, 
primary  or  fundamental  ?  The  question  is  complicated.  Neither  type 
exists  in  isolation ;  both  rhythms  interpenetrate.  A  good  quality  of 
verse- interval  rhythm  will  largely  depend  on,  or  perhaps  demand, 
a  smooth  flow  of  centroids.  It  may  also  be  associated  with  pause 
rhythms,  sectional  and  terminal.  Remembering  these  cautions,  which 
type  has,  on  the  whole,  the  stronger  claim  ? 


136  /.  E.    Wallace  Wallin, 

Hints  from  the  measurements. — These  indicated  that  the  range  of 
irregularity  was  about  2^  times  larger,  the  average  irregularity  over  2 
times  larger,  and  the  number  of  records  of  unrhythmical  intervals  about  4 
times  more  for  the  simple  intervals.  In  only  one  record  was  the  varia- 
tion of  the  intervals  less  for  the  simple  centroid.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  regularity,  experiment  uniformly  emphasizes  the  importance  of 
the  verse  interval  type. 

This  type,  however,  to  become  a  rhythmic  unity  requires  a  sort  of 
"verse"  centroid,  as  distinguished  from  the  "foot"  centroids,  at  the 
beginning  or  the  end.  The  complicated  relations  of  the  verse  and  foot 
centroids  give  rise  to  a  hegemony  of  centroids.  The  verse  as  a  rhyth- 
mical whole  might  be  changed  by  eliminating  the  sectional  and  especially 
the  terminal  centroids.  It  could  remain  a  regular,  yet  not  rhythmical, 
group. 

Hints  from  the  test. — The  grouping  of  the  sounds  into  visible  verses 
produced  a  delusion  :  spontaneous,  unsuspecting  thought  did  not  dis- 
tinguish verse  sequences  from  sentence  sequences.  With  words  arranged 
like  prose  sentences  the  verses  were  pronounced  non-rhythmical  sentences 
of  prose.  With  words  arranged  like  verses  the  prose  sentences  were 
declared  rhythmical,  and  to  be  poetry. 

In  these  judgments  the  smoothness  or  rhythm  of  the  word  flow  was  a 
factor.  The  determining  factor  was  the  form  of  print,  or  a  felt  verse 
meter.  Some  who  read  the  Tennyson  verses  as  prose  pronounced  them 
rugged  but  still  poetry,  because  of  a  felt  verse  interval  rhythm.  The 
appeal  to  unsuspecting  thought  also  shows  the  importance  of  this  form 
of  rhythm. 

Hints  from  the  poet. — The  following  questions,  bearing  also  on  other 
aspects  of  the  metrical  problem,  were  submitted. 

Questionnaire  on  the  art  of  versification  in  respect  to  meter. 

Describe  the  attitude  which  you  assume,  in  the  act  of  poetical  production,  toward  the 
versification  of  the  poem  that  you  are  about  to  write. 

(I. )  (a)  Do  you  determine  in  advance  the  particular  kind  of  meter  which  you  intend 
to  follow?  (b)  Do  you  decide  that  a  given  poem  shall  consist  of  a  certain  kind  and 
number  of  measures — dactyls,  spondees,  iambi,  anapests,  etc. — to  the  line?  (c)  If  so, 
do  you  go  over  your  verses  to  see  that  they  invariably  follow  the  metrical  system  adopted  ? 
(d)  Or  are  there  forces  unconsciously  operative  preventing  any  deviation  from  a  chosen 
norm? 

Or  do  you  predetermine  the  number  of  emphatic  or  accented  syllables,  i.  e.,  stress- 
points,  irrespective  of  the  number  of  unaccented  or  weak  syllables,  for  the  verses  of  your 
poem  ? 

(II. )   Or,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  measure  in  your  poetry  a  subordinate  factor? 

Does  it  sustain  a  relation  to  special   moDds  and   emotions  and  to  the   character  of  the 


OF 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  137 

thought  which  you  would  express  ?  Do  you  become  so  inspired  by  the  thought  to  be 
expressed  that  the  form  never  for  a  moment  rises  consciously  before  you  ?  Your  foot- 
scheme  would  thus  be  the  result  of  a  species  of  unconscious  cerebration,  and  you  would 
become  aware  of  its  character  not  before,  but  either  in  the  very  act  of  poetical  creative- 
ness,  or  upon  subsequent  examination  of  your  completed  product. 

(III.)  Do  you  feel  a  demand  for  meter?     Whence  does  it  spring  ? 

(IV. )  If  you  employ  both  methods,  what  relation  do  they  sustain  in  reference  to  (a) 
frequency;  (b)  ease  or  naturalness,  and  (c)  results,  metrical  and  poetical? 

The  meter  of  Christabel,  it  may  here  be  noted,  was  founded  on  the 
principle  of  "counting  in  each  line  the  accents  and  not  the  syllables."  l 
Each  verse  contains  four  accents  ;  the  number  of  syllables  may  vary  from 
seven  to  twelve.  Tennyson's  lyric,  "The  Poet's  Mind,"  may  be  con- 
sulted. 

Replies. 
(English) 

Ella  Wheeler  Wilcox  :  I  cannot  fully  analyze  my  methods.  They  are  not  always  the 
same.  The  idea  comes  usually  first,  a  sentence,  a  word,  or  a  thought  only — like  a  point 
of  light.  I  may  carry  it  about  for  weeks — the  germ  of  the  poem  —shapeless  and  unde- 
fined. When  I  take  time  to  sit  down  and  focus  my  mind  upon  it,  the  poem  comes. 

Sometimes  I  begin  two  or  three  shapes  before  I  fix  upon  the  style  of  verse ;  oftener  I 
begin  the  poem  as  it  remains,  the  lines  falling  into  rhythm  themselves. 

Again,  I  decide  upon  a  sonnet  form,  the  moment  the  idea  comes.  One  of  my  best 
sonnets  ("A  Minor  Chord  ")  came  that  way.  I  met  two  nurses  on  the  street  and  the 
line  "The  wistful  unkissed  mouths  of  nurses"  came  to  me.  I  knew  it  was  a  sonnet 
line,  and  days  afterward  sat  down  and  built  the  sonnet  to  fit  that  line. 

In  talking  with  a  very  excitable  man  one  day  about  single  tax  (that  is,  listening  while 
he  talked),  he  said  :  "  No  question  is  ever  settled  until  it  is  settled  right."  I  said,  "  Oh 
there  is  a  poem  in  that,"  and  at  once  sat  down  and  wrote  it — it  has  been  used  in  two 
political  campaigns  by  the  Bryan  orators. 

Sometimes  without  any  idea,  a  rhythm,  a  wordless  song,  goes  ringing  through  my  head. 
I  walk  to  it — I  work  to  it — and  it  pursues  me  until  I  find  an  idea  to  put  into  the  measure. 

At  other  times,  without  idea  or  measure,  I  settle  down,  knowing  something  will  come. 
- : 2  My  own  poetic  mental  habit  is  lyrical.  As  nearly  as  I  can  re- 
member, each  poem,  or  theme,  or  motif  (as  one  would  say  in  music)  occurs  to  me  almost 
simultaneously  in  both  thought  and  form — a  poetic  phrase  (made  up  of  words  in  a  certain 
poetic  accent  and  diction)  shapes  itself  in  the  mind.  I  do  not  realize  at  the  moment 
what  the  meter  is.  I  may,  or  may  not,  realize  what  the  stanza  or  complete  poem-form  is 
to  be.  I  think  that  most  of  my  lyrics  have  occurred  to  me  "  on  the  road  " — when  mov- 
ing about,  going  back  and  forth  to  my  office,  travelling,  sometimes  when  I  am  reading. 
Sometimes  a  line  or  two  will  rest  in  my  mind  for  years,  and  add  other  lines  spontaneously  ; 
it  may  be  in  distant  scenes.  For  instance,  for  years  I  had  in  my  mind  these  lines, 
descriptive  of  the  glow  above  New  York  as  seen  at  night  from  the  Staten  Island  ferry  : 

Lies  like  a  lily  white 

On  the  black  pool  of  night. 

COLERIDGE,  Poetical  Works,  I  188,  Aldine  Edition. 
2  The  writer  wishes  his  name  reserved. 


138  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

Years  afterward,  while  at  Stratford-on-Avon  for  the  first  time,  the  whole  poem  came  to 
me  in  a  shape  that  I  had  never  had  in  mind  at  all,  so  far  as  I  know.  It  was  not  at  all 
affected  in  form  by  the  memory  of  Shakespeare  verse  forms,  as  might  have  been  natural 
in  the  circumstances. 

AT  NIGHT. 


The  sky  is  dark,  and  dark  the  bay  below 
Save  where  the  midnight  city's  pallid  glow 

Lies  like  a  lily  white 

On  the  black  pool  of  night. 

O  rushing  steamer,  hurry  on  thy  way 
Across  the  swirling  Kills  and  gusty  bay, 

To  where  the  eddying  tide 

Strikes  hard  the  city's  side  ! 

For  there,  between  the  river  and  the  sea, 
Beneath  that  glow, — the  lily's  heart  to  me, — 

A  sleeping  mother  mild, 

And  by  her  breast  a  child  ! 

My  busy  life  has  given  me  little  time  to  build  poems  ;  hence  their  brevity  and  subjec- 
tive quality.  They  start,  with  few  exceptions,  from  a  personal  experience  and  emotion. 
At  times  in  my  mind  a  line  or  verse  seems  to  sing  itself  (not  an  actual  tune  but  a  series 
of  poetic  accents)  ;  hardly  anything  at  first  except  a  sense  of  verbal  music  without  words, 
stirred  by  the  delight,  perhaps,  in  something  startlingly  beautiful  in  nature. 

In  the  volume  "In  Palestine"  you  will  find  a  poem,  "How  to  the  Singer 
Comes  the  Song,"  which  seems  to  be  itself  an  answer  to  your  question.  After  a  few 
phrases  or  lines  have  started  into  being  something  seems  to  say,  this  is  to  be  a  poem  in 
such  or  such  a  conventional  form — blank  verse,  four  lines  with  rhymes,  six,  a  sonnet, 
etc., —  or  else  in  some  new  form  altogether,  with  stanzas  irregular  or  unconventional  in 
themselves  but  made  regular  by  following  succeeding  stanzas  all  of  the  same  form,  or 
else  with  the  regular  irregularity  of  the  dithyrambic  form.  After  the  form  is  thus  estab- 
lished everything  is  bent  to  moulding  the  poem  according  to  the  conventional  or  sought- 
out,  or  accidental  pattern.  I  find  the  line  is  in  such  a  form — well  then,  it  must  be 
true  to  that  form — unless  with  some  variation  that  cannot  be  charged  to  carelessness,  but 
to  deliberate  intention  or  deliberate  adoption  of  an  accidentally  pleasing  form.  At  one 
time — virtually  the  beginning  of  my  poetical  writing — I  was  very  much  stirred  by  the 
Italian  sonnets,  by  Shakespeare's,  Milton's,  etc.,  and  my  poetic  impulses  naturally  flowed 
into  sonnet  form  ;  the  seed  phrase  in  the  mind  was  apt  to  be  inevitably  sonnet-wise. 
I  have  written  four  in  a  day.  I  have  no  doubt  that  while  Dante  was  writing  his  triology 
his  poetical  thought  fell  naturally  into  the  terza  rima. 

I  think  the  initial  thought  is  generally  a  line ;  rhymes  usually  follow  with  lightning 
speed.  I  believe  this  is  because  my  mind — like  the  minds  of  all  moderns — is  full  of  the 
music  of  rhymes.  If  I  had  been  an  ancient  Hebrew,  or  a  verse-maker  of  some  other 
primitive  race  in  the  early  days,  the  music  in  my  mind  would  doubtless  have  been  rhyme, 
less — would  have  fallen  with  apparent  spontaneity  into  the  forms  prevalent  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  time. 

:  J  (I.)  I  do  not  determine  in  advance  the  stanza  forms  to  be  used 

in  any  particular  poem,  unless  a  thought  or  feeling  occurs  to  me  which  seems  fitted  for 

1  The  writer  wishes  his  name  reserved. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  139 

one  of  the  more  elaborate,  recognized  stanza  forms,  like  the  sonnet,  rondeau,  Spenserian 
stanza,  etc.  In  that  case  I  enter  upon  the  construction  of  it  consciously.  I  do  go  over 
my  verses  to  see  that  there  are  the  right  number  of  lines,  that  they  rhyme  in  the  right 
order,  and  I  do  not  commonly  count  the  number  of  syllables  or  accents  in  a  line  in 
composing  isometric  verse.  The  form  once  adopted — say  the  ten-syllable  iambic — my 
ear  keeps  count  of  the  syllables  half- consciously  in  the  act  of  composition.  When  the 
length  of  the  line  varies,  however,  sometimes  I  find  that  I  have  made  a  mistake — have 
got  a  line  in  that  is  a  foot  too  short  or  too  long — and  so  have  to  correct. 

(II.)  The  adoption  of  a  line  as  the  unit  of  a  verse-composition,  is  commonly  the 
result  of  unconscious  cerebration,  I  think  ;  or  rather,  perhaps  of  unconscious  imitation, 
my  memory  being  full  of  verses  of  all  kinds.  It  is  with  some  half-remembered  measure 
that  a  thought  or  feeling  in  my  mind  tends  to  associate  itself,  giving  possibly  a  line  or 
two  lines  which  emerge  definitely  into  consciousness.  Then  the  end- word  in  this  line 
or  lines,  suggests  a  rhyme- word  and  so  a  stanza  or  couplet  is  formed — usually  in  the 
middle  of  the  poem  that  is  to  be.  From  this,  by  a  conscious  effort  of  construction,  I 
build  up  the  piece,  before  and  after,  on  the  norm  thus  established. 

(III.)  I  do  feel  a  demand  for  meter,  but  could  not  say  whence  it  springs  without 
theorizing  about  it.  Certain  emotions,  not  at  the  moment  they  are  experienced,  but  after- 
wards, when  recalled,  seem  to  crave  metrical  expression.  A  few  words  come  to  me 
metrically  arranged,  and  that  is  the  nucleus  of  a  poem  if  I  carry  the  thing  any  further 
by  a  definite  effort  of  will.  If  not,  they  simply  drop  out  of  memory  in  a  day  or  two.  I 
have  sometimes  dreamed  a  line  or  two. 

(IV.)  I  have  not  noticed  the  relative  frequency.  The  two  methods  run  together  and 
are  confused  in  any  actual  piece  of  verse- composition. 

James  Riley :  (I.)  I  know  nothing  of  the  anatomy  (I  will  call  it)  of  poetry.  My 
own  experience  after  nineteen  years,  writing  my  first  poem  at  the  age  of  thirty- three,  is 
that  the  form  strengthens  and  meets  unconsciously  the  requirements  of  the  poem,  in 
accordance  to  the  inner  growth. 

(II.)  This  question  answers  all  I  know  of  poetry.  It  seems  to  me  the  poet  should 
write  his  moods  as  they  come  to  him,  and  later  complete  or  reject  the  work  according  to 
its  worth.  In  my  dialect  poems — in  the  New  England  and  Irish  dialects — I  have  always 
known  what  I  was  going  to  write, — to  a  great  extent  before  writing  a  line.  They  have 
generally  been  of  actual  occurrences  in  my  life.  On  the  other  hand — and  it  has  always 
been  puzzling  to  me  why  it  should  be  so — I  have  written  a  great  number  of  stories  in 
prose,  and  in  them  I  can  never  find  myself  able  to  insert  a  single  actual  incident  in  my 
experience. 

To  show  how  erratic  is  the  poetic  mood  as  it  comes  to  me  sometimes,  out  of  which  if 
worked  out  comes  a  poem,  I  mention  a  poem  written  a  year  ago  and  which  appeared  in 
the  "  New  England  Magazine  "  of  last  May.  I  remember  the  words  and  thought  that 
led  to  the  opening  lines  of  the  poem  : 

"  After  the  book  is  written,  after  its  page  is  read, 
After  the  soul  has  brought  and  left  what  to  the  age  is  wed," — 

What  connection  it  has  with  the  poem  I  am  unable  to  tell.  The  lines  were  to  me  a 
music  that  led  to  other  music,  and  allowing  the  second  feeling  to  express  itself,  I  began 
striking  the  words  on  the  typewriter  "  over  and  over  and  over."  I  did  it  with  no  con- 
nection of  any  thought  but  that  should  in  some  way  involve  and  be  of  life.  In  this  way 
the  music  came  first.  My  first  writing — beginning  of  the  poem — was  with  the  thought 


1 4o  /.  E.   Wallace  Wallin, 

that  every  stanza  should  begin  as  the  first,  and  I  can  see  now  that  the  thought  would 
have  been  higher,  if  the  refrain  had  so  continued. 

N.  M.  Nelson  :  In  my  few  metrical  compositions,  1  have  never  stopped  to  think 
whether  I  used  dactyls  or  spondees,  or  counted  the  syllables  until  I  had  finished.  I 
simply  let  my  thoughts  assume  the  form  suited  to  their  expression.  When  in  such  a 
mood,  the  metrical  part  is  secondary  to  thought,  but  may  still  be  in  strict  conformity  with 
poetical  usage. 

There  is  certainly  a  necessity  for  meter.  This  may  be  because  we  unconsciously  imi- 
tate poetical  composition,  or  the  mind  may  require  meter  in  certain  moods  to  express 
inspired  thought. 

E.  L.  Fox  (Yale  '02):  (I.)  (a)  Before  beginning  to  write,  yes;  but  not  before  the 
spirit  and  general  idea  of  the  poem  are  clearly  defined  in  my  mind,  (b)  No.  (c)  No. 
(d)  Yes.  The  spirit  of  the  poem  generally  swings  itself  into  a  suitable  meter,  so  that 
choice  of  a  meter  is  usually  unnecessary  (when  writing  "  to  order"  on  a  subject  I  am 
not  enthusiastic  about,  this  is  not  true).  Sometimes  I  hit  upon  a  meter  I  like;  it  sticks 
in  my  mind  and  suddenly  occurs  to  me  as  just  the  thing  for  a  subject  I  have  been  think- 
ing over  for  a  week  or  so. 

(II. )  The  measure  is  distinctly  paramount.  It  sustains  a  close  relation  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  thought.  The  last  sentence  applies  perfectly  to  my  experience. 

(III. )  Yes  ;  from  the  nature  of  the  theme  and  the  enthusiasm  which  it  excites. 

(IV7.)   I  employ  but  one  method. 

Paul  F.  Gilbert  (Yale  '01)  :  My  ear  tests  the  quality  of  meter.  Minor  defects  are 
corrected  by  mechanical  examination.  Forces  unconsciously  operative  prevent  with  some 
reliability  any  eccentricity.  The  number  of  accented  syllables  is  predetermined,  subject 
to  modification,  with  little  attention  to  specific  forms  of  verse,  the  number  being  settled 
by  their  capability  of  expressing  the  nucleus  of  the  poem  and  other  favorite  sentiments 
which  may  be  afterwards  suggested. 

My  moods  and  emotions  are  emphasized  by  the  employment  of  a  suitable  verse  form, 
but  this  form  is  not  arbitrary. 

The  expression  of  spontaneous  thought  often  runs  into  the  channels  of  least  resist- 
ance— usually  some  elementary  form  of  verse.  The  demand  for  meter  arises  from  a 
natural  desire  for  repetition.  Repetition  is  agreeable,  the  abrupt  disagreeable. 

The  practice  of  determining  in  advance  the  meter  and  the  number  of  accented  syllables 
tends  to  produce  artistic  results ;  but  I  find  the  spontaneous  expression  more  satisfactory. 
The  imitation  of  established  verse  forms  leads  to  artificiality. 

(Norwegian) 

Wilhelm  Petersen  :  (I.)  (a)  Sometimes  I  do  determine  the  meter  in  advance,  e.  g., 
when  I  write  new  words  to  some  old  melody,  either  from  choice,  or  by  the  request  of 
others.  In  such  cases  the  song  known  to  me  in  that  meter  has  a  certain  influence  on 
what  I  write,  perhaps  through  mood-association. 

(b)  Strictly  speaking,  I  do  not  think  I  ever  determined  in  advance  (except  as  above 
stated)  any  precise  meter,  as  dactyl,  spondee    iambus,  anapest,  etc.     I  do  think,  how- 
ever, that  after  my  thought  has  assumed  a  certain  rhythm  (the  original  poetic  form,  an 
emotion- product)  I  develop  it  in  consciousness  into  a  more  regular  meter,  partly  by  choice 
influenced  by  my  acquaintance  with  prosody  and  literature,  partly  as  it  may  happen  to 
fall  in  with  the  completed  "motif"  that  is  to  form  the  basis  of  my  poem. 

(c)  That  depends.     If  I  desire  to  make  a  "finished  product,"   I  follow  the  laws  of 
prosody  and  rhetoric  in  detail. 


Researches  on  the  rhythm  of  speech.  141 

(d)  No,  I  hardly  think  there  are.  My  opinion  is  that  a  person  working  under  the 
influence  of  the  soul-forces  in  a  subconscious  state,  simply  follows  the  rhythmic  fall  of  his 
thought  as  accentuated  by  the  underlying  mood- waves,  and  the  suitable  words  fall  into 
the  place  demanded  either  by  a  musical  force  in  subconsciousness,  or  are  called  forth  simul- 
taneously with  the  thought.  The  result  is  :  accented- tone  syllables  and  stress-points. 
Meter  and  rhyme  are  secondary  results  due  to  conscious  effort  toward  art- form. 

(II.)  When  the  writer  is  unconscious  of  imitation  and  uninfluenced  by  mood-associa- 
tion, "measure"  in  poetry  must  be  subordinate  in  degree  and  secondary  in  time,  and  is 
rather  an  art-effect  than  a  factor.  As  the  "motif"  in  original  inspired  production  is 
"  emotion  of  soul  fused  into  thought  " — eine  Regung  der  Seele  durch  Gesinnung  bewutz 
und  im  Gedanken  fliezend  gemacht — the  desire  for  the  materialization  of  which  demands 
from  the  soul  a  conscious  effort  in  language  production,  and  as,  furthermore,  language 
follows  the  most  rigid  laws,  just  as  lines  do  in  painting  and  sculpture,  I  cannot  quite  see 
how  there  can  exist  any  direct  relation  between  the  creative  and  conceiving  mood  and  the 
outward  art-form  that  the  complete  poetical  thought  finally  assumes.  That  some  relation 
may  exist,  it  were  rash  to  deny.  The  natural  steps  in  the  development  of  a  poetical 
thought  would  then,  it  seems  to  me,  be  as  follows  :  Underlying  emotion,  or  inspiration, 
moving  towards  and  shaping  itself  into  a  "motif"  that  rises  through  subconscious  effort 
and  determines  "rhythm"  or  "tone-accent,"  and  flowing  into  word-expression,  follow- 
ing in  the  form  it  finally  assumes,  the  laws  of  prosody  as  to  meter,  and  of  rhetoric  as  to 
choice  of  words. 

(III. )  Yes.  It  springs  partly,  at  least,  from  the  nature  of  the  language  used.  How- 
ever, language  itself  has  been  influenced  by  this  demand,  indicating  that  the  demand  for 
meter  may  follow  from  the  first  the  steps  in  the  above  scheme  of  development,  although 
not  consciously  sought  for  till  the  last. 

(IV.)  I  think  I  have  written  (a)  mostly  without  predetermined  measure,  (b)  far 
more  easily  and  naturally  then,  and  (c)  with  better  results,  metrically  and  poetically. 

(Swedish) 

Jakob  Bonggren :  While  sitting,  walking,  or,  though  rarely,  lying  down,  some 
thought  or,  oftener,  picture  flashes  into  my  mind,  which  I  conclude  will  make  a  good 
poem.  Sometimes  I  hear  a  meter  or  some  line  of  poetry  in  connection  with  it,  and  that 
is  the  nucleus  of  the  poem  about  to  be  begun. 

( I. )  If  the  mind  only  begets  a  thought  or  picture,  I  try  to  find  a  meter  ;  this  is  usually 
an  easy  matter.  I  think  I  can  hear  what  is  the  proper  meter,  so  I  seldom  have  difficulty 
in  selecting  a  form.  I  very  seldom,  if  ever,  decide  from  the  beginning  the  number  of 
lines  in  the  poem  ;  it  grows  until  it  is  full-grown.  If  I  have  one  verse,  it  is  easy  to  get 
all  the  following  or  preceding  ones  molded  in  the  same  form.  I  read  through  the  poem, 
correcting  and  changing  the  words  here  and  there,  but  very  seldom  the  meter. 

If  I  have  a  thought  as  a  nucleus,  I  sometimes  study  out  some  of  the  strongest  points 
and  stress- words,  select  a  meter,  and  work  out  the  poem.  Poems  worked  out  in  this  way 
(from  pictures  or  thoughts)  I  have  found  to  be  the  best. 

(II.)  Whenever  I  am  called  upon  to  write  a  poem  on  a  certain  subject  I  slowly  and 
carefully  work  it  out ;  select  a  suitable  meter  and  think  out  all  I  want  to  include  in  the 
poem.  After  handling  my  subject  for  a  while,  I  sometimes  feel  warmed  up,  and  then 
everything  is  easy.  There  seems  to  be  an  unconscious  cerebration  working  along  with 
conscious  thought  and  will,  when  something  worthy  the  name  of  a  poem  is  created.  The 
"poems  "  written  to  order  I  have  found  to  be  generally  poor,  unless  I  have  warmed  up 
in  the  act  of  composing. 

(IV.)   Answers  as  above  (I.)  and  (II.). 


142  J.  E.    Wallace  Wallin. 

As  bearing  on  the  present  question,  these  statements  indicate  that  both 
types  of  language  rhythm,  varying  more  or  less  with  different  composers, 
are  felt,  and  make  a  demand  upon  the  mind  that  conceives  poetical 
thoughts  and  embodies  itself  in  metrical  language.  Witness  the  terms  : 
"wordless  song,"  "poetic  accents,"  "verbal  music,  without  words," 
"measure  paramount ;"  and  "  poetic  phrase,"  "  sonnet  form, "  "verse 
form,"  "verse  line  singing  itself,"  music  of  the  lines,  the  line  as  the 
"unit  of  verse-composition,"  as  the  "initial  thought,"  the  "seed 
phrase,"  feeling  that  the  line  must  be  "  true  to  its  form,"  and  "  measure 
secondary. ' ' 

Deduction. — Three  lines  of  evidence  thus  uniformly  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  the  verse  interval  type  of  meter  in  speech  rhythm.  These 
intervals  may  approximate  better  than  the  centroid  intervals  the  larger 
fluctuations  of  attention  in  speaking,  which  alone  may  possess  the  power 
to  genuinely  attune  and  cadence  the  soul.  May  we  therefore  regard 
them  as  the  primary  or  chief  type  of  the  rhythm  of  speech  ? 


It  is  a  pleasant  duty  to  acknowledge  my  obligations  to  the  subjects,  to 
those  answering  the  questionnaire,  and  to  the  editor  of  the  Studies. 


NOTE. 

The  price  of  all  volumes  of  these  Studies  is  fixed  at  $i  each.  For  cash 
with  order  the  price  is  75  cents,  provided  no  correspondence  or  other 
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« — — "" 


JAH  1 1 


YC  45446' 


